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11. Biographical Context When Robert Burns became famous after publishing his first volume of poetry, he did not object to those who considered him a “Heaven-taught plowman” who wrote spontaneously about his feelings for his native land. Yet Burns was an ambitious and well-read person who worked painstakingly on his poems, and he held political views that were radical for the time. Why might Burns have encouraged the public to think of him as a simple farmer instead of a sophisticated poet?
Auld Lang Syne [185] by Robert Burns
| Should auld acquaintance be forgot, And never brought to min’? Should auld acquaintance be forgot, And auld lang syneo? For auld lang syne, my dear. For auld lang syne, We’ll tak a cup o’ kindness yet, For auld lang syne [186]. We twa hae run about the braeso, And pu’d the gowanso fine; But we’ve wander’d mony a weary foot Sin’ auld lang syne. We twa hae paidled i’ the burno, From morning sun till dine; But seas between us braid hae roar’do Sin’ auld lang syne. And there’s a hand, my trusty fiereo, And gie’s a hand o’ thine; And we’ll tak a right guid-willie waughto, For auld lang syne. And surely ye’ll be your pint-stowpo, And surely I’ll be mine; And we’ll tak a cup o’ kindness yet For auld lang syne. | Auld lang syne means “old long ago.” braes are hills. pu’d the gowans means “pulled the daisies.” hae paidled i’ the burn means “have paddled in the stream.” braid hae roar’d means “broad have roared.” fiere means “friend.” tak a right guid-willie waught means “take a good drink.” ye’ll be your pint-stowp means “you’ll pay for your pint.” |
[1] OLD ENGLISH POETRY Reread lines 1–2 aloud. Notice the use of alliteration with the repetition of the letters p and d. What mood, or feeling, does the alliteration convey?
[2] EPIC Note the description in lines 23–29 of supernatural creatures that are “again and again defeated.” What universal theme might these lines suggest?
[3] CONFLICT What does the conflict between the Danes and Grendel symbolize?
[4] EPIC What is the tone of lines 44–49? What words and details convey this tone?
[5] OLD ENGLISH POETRY What does the kenning “hell-forged hands” in line 64 suggest about Grendel?
[6] EPIC Reread lines 109–116, in which Beowulf is first introduced. What traits of an epic hero does he appear to possess?
[7] EPIC Notice that in lines 153–159, Beowulf boasts about past victories that required superhuman strength and courage. Why might the people of Beowulf’s time have valued such traits?
[8] CONFLICT Discuss how the original fight of good versus evil has grown more complex. What might Grendel’s reaction be when Beowulf and his warriors join in the Danes’ fight?
[9] OLD ENGLISH POETRY Observe that as Hrothgar begins to speak about Grendel in lines 207–210, the mood becomes bleak and despairing. What repeated sounds does the poet use to suggest this mood?
[10] EPIC Note that Hrothgar delivers a long speech to Beowulf in lines 190–224. What values are reflected in the speech?
[11] OLD ENGLISH POETRY Reread lines 233–235. Notice that the translator uses punctuation to convey the effect of the midline pauses, or caesuras, in the lines. In what way does the rhythm created by the pauses reinforce the action recounted here?
[12] CONFLICT Reread lines259-261. How does Beowulf differ from other warriors whom Grendel has attacked?
[13] OLD ENGLISH POETRY Reread lines 293–300. What impression of the battle does the alliteration help convey?
[14] CONFLICT Reread lines356-358.Why does Beowulf hang Grendel’s arm in the rafters?
[15] GRAMMAR AND STYLE To capture a scene, the poet often uses vivid imagery. Notice the use in lines 369–374, for example, of adjectives such as bloody, steaming, pounding, and swirling to help readers see and feel the violent, churning water.
[16] OLD ENGLISH POETRY Reread lines 389–396. In what ways does this description reflect the techniques used by Anglo-Saxon poets? Cite details.
[17] EPIC Reread lines 464–474. What details of the battle and its setting are characteristic of an epic?
[18] CONFLICT Reread lines 523-525.Irony is a discrepancy between expectation and reality. What is ironic about the way Beowulf kills Grendel’s mother?
[19] EPIC What does the light described in lines 526–528 suggest about Beowulf’s victory?
[20] EPIC What do lines 549–555 suggest about attitudes toward fame in the Anglo-Saxon period?
[21] EPIC Reread lines 587–594. Why do you think the Geats want the Danes to see Grendel’s skull?
[22] OLD ENGLISH POETRY Notice the repeated use of the letter f in lines 606–611. What tone does the alliteration help convey?
[23] CONFLICT Reread lines 627-629.Is Beowulf being foolhardy or noble in deciding to fight alone? Explain.
[24] EPIC Reread lines 668–671. What do these lines reveal about the qualities of an epic hero?
[25] EPIC What values are implied in lines 691–696? What message about these values do the lines convey?
[26] EPIC Note that Beowulf summarizes his 50-year reign in lines 744–755. What ideals are reflected in Beowulf’s speech?
[27] EPIC Reread lines 768–778. What theme do the lines suggest?
[28] OLD ENGLISH POETRY Identify the kennings used in lines 789–794 to refer to the dragon and to Beowulf. What does the phrase used to describe Beowulf emphasize about the warrior?
[29] EPIC Reread lines 812–819. Why is it important to Beowulf that he leave a legacy behind?
[30] EPIC What does Wiglaf’s speech in lines 851–862 tell you about the importance of honor and the consequences of dishonorable behavior in Beowulf’s time?
[31] OLD ENGLISH POETRY Reread lines 889–893 aloud. Notice the alliteration in the phrases “words for their lords” and “warm with love.” How would you describe the tone of these lines?
[32] SUMMARIZING Summarize the argument that Paulinus makes in the following speech.
[33] HISTORICAL NARRATIVE In what way is this detail characteristic of a historical narrative?
[34] SUMMARIZING Reread lines 27-29. Summarize Coifi’s attitude toward religion.
[35] HISTORICAL NARRATIVE Reread lines 46-47. How might a modern historian represent this scene differently?
[36] HISTORICAL WRITING What do you learn from this paragraph about poetry in Caedmon’s time?
[37] HISTORICAL WRITING To what does Bede attribute Caedmon’s ability to compose poetry? Restate what Bede tells you about Caedmon’s poem.
[38] HISTORICAL WRITING In lines 31–43, what do you learn about the organization and the work of the monastery?
[39] AUTHOR’S PURPOSE How are readers meant to feel toward Caedmon? Explain how you can tell.
[40] IMAGERY, MOOD In lines 12–26, what senses does the imagery appeal to? Describe the mood created by the imagery.
[41] MOOD In lines 31-33, what mood do the images in these lines create?
[42] IMAGERY Note how the images in lines 44–57 contrast with the images of the sea. How is the speaker affected by thoughts of life on land?
[43] MONITOR Notice the break at line 64. Here the speaker turns to a new idea. How do you interpret the sentence beginning “Thus the joys of God...”?
[44] MONITOR Visualize the images of the world in lines 80–102. What main idea do they convey?
[45] MONITOR Paraphrase the advice the speaker gives in lines 117–122. Where is “our home”?
[46] PARAPHRASE Restate lines 1–18. Why does the group make its pilgrimage in April?
[47] PARAPHRASE Paraphrase lines 35–42. What does the narrator set out to accomplish in “The Prologue”?
[48] CHARACTERIZATION Reread lines 43–74. What do the Knight’s actions on and off the battlefield reveal about his character? Cite details to support your answer.
[49] CHARACTERIZATION Reread lines 122–145. Which details suggest that the Prioress may be trying to appear more sophisticated than she really is?
[50] CHARACTERIZATION List three character traits of the Monk. In what ways does the narrator appear to poke fun at him?
[51] PARAPHRASE Restate lines 237–246. How does the Friar spend the money he earns through hearing confessions?
[52] PARAPHRASE Paraphrase lines 284–294. Is the Merchant a successful businessman? Why or why not?
[53] CHARACTERIZATION Reread lines 295–318. In what ways does the Oxford Cleric differ from the Monk and the Friar? Cite details.
[54] CHARACTERIZATION What does the narrator state directly about the Franklin in lines 341–356?
[55] CHARACTERIZATION Reread lines 455–486. Which details help define the Wife of Bath as a worldly woman?
[56] PARAPHRASE Restate lines 515–524. In what ways does the Parson serve the members of his parish?
[57] CHARACTERIZATION Compare the Plowman with his brother, the Parson. What character traits do they seem to share?
[58] GRAMMAR AND STYLE Review lines 570–575. Notice how Chaucer uses similes, or comparisons, to create a remarkably vivid— and unflattering— portrait of the Miller.
[59] PARAPHRASE Paraphrase the description of the Pardoner in lines 712–726. How exactly does he earn a living?
[60] PARAPHRASE Restate lines 810–821. What proposal does the Host make to the pilgrims?
[61] CHARACTERIZATION Examine the way the pilgrims respond to the Host in lines 830–841. What type of person do you think would appeal to so many?
[62] READING BALLADS Reread lines 25–32. Which words capture the Scottish dialect, or regional language? Explain the strategies you used to understand these words.
[63] BALLAD What might account for the enduring popularity of “Get Up and Bar the Door”? Consider the ballad’s subject matter, dialogue, and musical qualities in your response.
[64] ROMANCE What details in lines 1–23 make the Green Knight a larger-than-life figure?
[65] MAKE INFERENCES Why does the Green Knight taunt Arthur and his knights in lines 88–94?
[66] CHARACTER TRAITS What traits does Gawain reveal about himself in lines 120–134?
[67] ROMANCE Which characteristics of medieval romance are reflected in lines 161–174?
[68] MAKE INFERENCES Reread lines 185– 189. What can you infer about Arthur and Gawain’s feelings about their encounter with the Green Knight?
[69] GRAMMAR AND STYLE The Gawain Poet uses alliterative participial phrases throughout the poem, which creates a rhythmic or “musical” effect in the selection. “Gleaming gold” in line 205 is a good example.
[70] CHARACTER TRAITS In lines 209–217, what does Gawain’s refusal of gifts suggest about his character?
[71] MAKE INFERENCES Reread lines 227–236. Why is Gawain distressed when he learns about the sash’s magical powers?
[72] MAKE INFERENCES Reread lines 271–275. Why does the Green Knight stop his axe from falling a second time?
[73] ROMANCE Paraphrase lines 357–365. What ideals of chivalry does Gawain believe he has betrayed?
[74] CONFLICT Reread lines 1–8 and the background note. How have Launcelot’s past actions set the stage for his current conflict with King Arthur?
[75] SUMMARIZE Summarize in one sentence the advice Launcelot receives from his counselors in lines 14–25.
[76] CONFLICT What internal conflict does Arthur reveal in lines 47–52?
[77] SUMMARIZE Describe the battle between Launcelot and Gawain. What tactic does Launcelot use to overcome Gawain’s secret advantage?
[78] MEDIEVAL ROMANCE In what ways does Launcelot exemplify the ideals of chivalry in lines 172–186?
[79] SUMMARIZE Reread lines 195–209 and summarize the events that open this section of the selection.
[80] CONFLICT Describe the external conflict in lines 216–224.
[81] SUMMARIZE Summarize lines 235–243. Why do many people in Britain support Modred?
[82] SUMMARIZE Reread lines 279–302. Briefly summarize Gawain’s letter to Sir Launcelot.
[83] SUMMARIZE Summarize lines 350–367. What leads to the breaking of the treaty between King Arthur and Modred?
[84] CONFLICT What internal conflict does Sir Bedivere experience in lines 436–455? How does he ultimately resolve it?
[85] PASTORAL What characteristics of pastoral poems do you find in lines 9–14?
[86] COMPARE SPEAKERS Reread lines 13–16. How does the nymph directly refute the shepherd’s promises?
[87] SUMMARIZE What is the main idea in lines 1–4?
[88] SPENSERIAN SONNET Note the words Spenser uses in his end rhymes. In what ways are they related to the major ideas in this sonnet?
[89] SHAKESPEAREAN SONNET Reread lines 13–14. How does this turn affect your understanding of the statements that come before it in the poem?
[90] SIMILE AND METAPHOR Explain the metaphor in this line. What is being compared?
[91] DRAW CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THEME What conclusion can you draw from lines 21–28 about Hamlet’s fear of death?
[92] VOICE How would you describe Jaques’s voice in these lines?
[93] BLANK VERSE Reread line 38. Compare its meter with that of line 10 in Scene 1, spoken by the three witches. What do the two lines suggest about the witches?
[94] FORESHADOWING In lines 65–68, the witches compare Banquo to Macbeth and prophesy that Banquo will not be king but will father (get) future kings. What do you think their words predict for Macbeth?
[95] ASIDE Reread Macbeth’s aside in lines 130–142. What private thoughts does he reveal to the audience? Why might he want to keep these thoughts hidden from the other characters?
[96] FORESHADOWING Notice that in lines 11–14, Duncan admits he misjudged the thane of Cawdor, who proved a traitor. What might this admission foreshadow about the king?
[97] TRAGEDY Be aware that in Macbeth’s aside in lines 48–53, he admits that he hopes the king will be murdered. Based on these lines, what do you think is Macbeth’s tragic flaw?
[98] GRAMMAR AND STYLE Reread line 8. Shakespeare frequently uses inverted sentences and other types of inverted word order to achieve a poetic effect. Notice that in this line, Shakespeare places have, part of the verb phrase have thought, before the subject I to create a regular, pleasing rhythm.
[99] SOLILOQUY Notice that in her soliloquy in lines 12–27, Lady Macbeth expresses her thoughts about the prophecies. What conclusions can you draw about Lady Macbeth?
[100] DRAMATIC IRONY Why is the exchange between Lady Macbeth and Duncan in lines 25–31 ironic?
[101] SOLILOQUY Note that in lines 12–28 of his soliloquy, Macbeth lists the reasons why he shouldn’t kill Duncan. How do you think other characters will react if Macbeth kills the king?
[102] TRAGEDY Reread lines 47–59. How does Lady Macbeth urge her husband to carry out his terrible plan?
[103] RHETORICAL DEVICES Reread lines 1–5. What rhetorical device does More use, and what effect does it have?
[104] GRAMMAR AND STYLE Reread lines 31–38. Note that More uses a succession of imperative sentences to convey his ideas about how a king should behave.
[105] DRAW CONCLUSIONS Reread lines 16–19. What conclusions can you draw about the kinds of feelings a ruler should inspire in times of war?
[106] MAKE INFERENCES The selection contains many contrasting pairs, such as “weep” and “laugh,” and “love” and “hate.” What message do they help convey?
[107] SCRIPTURAL WRITING Psalm 23 is part of a collection of psalms often called “songs of trust.” Why might it be included in this group?
[108] MAKE INFERENCES Judging from the younger son’s realization in verses 17–19, what values does the parable suggest are important?
[109] ALLUSION Reread lines 1–16, find and interpret the various allusions. What will be the subject of Milton’s poem?
[110] DIFFICULT TEXTS Reread lines 94–98. Paraphrase this passage to clarify its meaning. What is Satan’s attitude toward his defeat?
[111] DIFFICULT TEXTS Interpret the various archaic expressions in lines 111–124. Does Satan regret rebelling against God? Support your response with details.
[112] DIFFICULT TEXTS Rewrite lines 159–165, reordering the syntax. What does Satan set out to accomplish?
[113] ALLUSION In lines 192–208, Milton compares Satan to several mythological and biblical figures. What do you learn about Satan from the allusions to Typhon and Leviathan?
[114] DIFFICULT TEXTS Reread the sentence in lines 209–220, identifying its subject and verb. Which details suggest that Satan has limited control over his own future?
[115] ALLEGORY Reread lines 1–20. In a few words, describe the people and activities of Vanity Fair. What symbolic meaning might this place have?
[116] AUTHOR’S PURPOSE Reread lines 22–29, whom or what is Bunyan poking fun at? Explain the purpose this criticism might serve.
[117] ALLEGORY Reread lines 70–86. Identify several allegorical characters and describe their attitude toward Faithful.
[118] AUTHOR’S PURPOSE In lines 98–113, Bunyan presents Christian and Hopeful reaching their final destination, the Celestial City. What emotional effect, if any, does this episode create?
[119] METAPHYSICAL CONCEIT Reread lines 25–28. What is unusual about comparing two lovers to a compass?
[120] METAPHYSICAL CONCEIT Reread lines 6–12. What comparison is made in this conceit?
[121] INTEPRET IDEAS Wha..t paradox do you find in lines 20–22? How would you interpret it?
[122] EPITAPH What mood does Jonson convey in lines 11–12?
[123] COMPARE SPEAKERS Reread lines 1–4. What emotion does the speaker express?
[124] RHYME Which end rhyme in the poem is an example of slant rhyme?
[125] THEME Reread lines 21–22. Explain how these lines help convey the theme of carpe diem.
[126] FIGURATIVE MEANING In lines 29–30, the speaker refers metaphorically to honor and lust as physical objects. What idea does this figurative language emphasize?
[127] FIGURATIVE MEANING Figuratively speaking, what might the rosebuds in line 1 be a reference to?
[128] THEME Note the last line of each stanza so far. What might this repetition suggest about the poem’s theme?
[129] DIARY Reread lines 5–13. What details tell you that Pepys was an eyewitness to Charles II’s return to England?
[130] DIARY Reread lines 13–25. What do you learn about Charles II’s experiences and personality? Explain how this account of the king might differ from other histories.
[131] CONNECT TO HISTORY Reread lines 26–67.Compare the king’s coronation to a modern event, such as a presidential inauguration. Would you have been as eager as Pepys to witness the ceremony? Explain your response.
[132] GRAMMAR AND STYLE Reread lines 88–101. Note how Pepys’s emotionally charged phrases, such as “heart full of trouble,” and his use of sentence fragments reflect the intimacy and informality of a diary entry.
[133] CONNECT TO HISTORY Reread Pepys’s account of the Great Fire in lines 68–127. Think about your own reaction to an impending fire or another disaster. Would you have responded as Pepys did? Why or why not?
[134] DIARY In lines 141–159, Pepys describes aspects of his home life. What roles and responsibilities do he and his wife each fulfill?
[135] DIARY Reread lines 160–179. Which details suggest that Pepys led a privileged life during the Restoration?
[136] DRAW CONCLUSIONS Reread lines 13–21. Which details suggest that the plague caused family relationships and friendships to fall apart?
[137] VERISIMILITUDE Review Defoe’s use of numbers, dates, and statistics in lines 22–43. Would the description of the Aldgate burial pit be as compelling without these details? Explain your response.
[138] VERISIMILITUDE The narrator recounts information about Aldgate and Finsbury, actual areas of London struck by the epidemic. How might Defoe’s original audience have reacted to reading these familiar geographical names?
[139] DRAW CONCLUSIONS Reread lines 69–99. Contrast the actions of the desperate man to those of the buriers. Whose response to the plague is more disturbing? Explain your thoughts.
[140] VERISIMILITUDE In lines 112–124, the first-person narrator describes the horrors of London’s infected parishes. How might your sense of the epidemic be different if a third-person narrator described the scene?
[141] HEROIC COUPLET In Pope’s time, tea was pronounced “tay.” How does Pope use rhyme in lines 7–8 to mock pomposity?
[142] ELEVATED LANGUAGE Reread lines 53–54, imagining the sounds that Pope describes. Write a paraphrase of this couplet.
[143] HEROIC COUPLET Reread lines 107–110. Which details in these couplets highlight the contrast between the actual incident that occurs and Belinda’s exaggerated reaction?
[144] MOCK EPIC In lines 125–132, what humorous effect does Pope create by using lofty language and allusions to Greek mythology?
[145] MOCK EPIC What characteristics of a mock epic do you find in lines 133–140?
[146] ELEVATED LANGUAGE Reread lines 193–198, paraphrase what the narrator says to comfort Belinda about the loss of her lock.
[147] PROPOSITION AND SUPPORT What problem does Swift identify in lines 1–18?
[148] SATIRE Reread lines 44–54. What social problem does Swift blame for the widespread thievery in Ireland?
[149] PROPOSITION AND SUPPORT Reread lines 66–77. What is Swift’s proposal?
[150] SATIRE Understatement is an ironic device that creates emphasis by saying less than is expected or appropriate. In what way are lines 97–99 an example of understatement?
[151] SATIRE What is ironic about Swift’s concern in lines 115–120 regarding what “some scrupulous people” might think?
[152] PROPOSITION AND SUPPORT Why does Swift supply these cost and profit calculations?
[153] PROPOSITION AND SUPPORT According to Swift in lines 167–175, how would his proposal improve family life?
[154] GRAMMAR AND STYLE Reread lines 176–182. Notice that Swift uses nouns like carcasses and flesh to emphasize the dehumanization of the Irish by the English.
[155] PROPOSITIONAND SUPPORT Reread lines 183–201. What attitude toward the Irish does Swift reveal in refuting this opposing view?
[156] FANTASY What details does Swift include in lines 20–39 to make this fantastic scene believable?
[157] FANTASY What details in lines 61–82 help you visualize the difference in size between Gulliver and the Lilliputians?
[158] HISTORICAL CONTEXT Reread lines 127–139 and the accompanying footnotes. What do you conclude is Swift’s attitude toward the politicians he alludes to in this description? Explain.
[159] FANTASY Gulliver performs a strange ritual in lines 173–181 as part of the signing of his freedom agreement. What might Swift be poking fun at?
[160] PARODY What is absurd about the emperor’s claims?
[161] FANTASY What is ironic about the praise of the Emperor in lines 182–190?
[162] PARODY What might Swift be parodying with this lengthy document?
[163] FANTASY Reread lines 223–232. Why might Swift have included these exact calculations in his narrative?
[164] HISTORICAL CONTEXT How does the historical context help you understand the underlying meaning of Swift’s description of the Lilliputian prince in lines 255–268?
[165] HISTORICAL CONTEXT Reread lines 269–297 and the accompanying footnotes. What does Swift’s account of Blefuscu suggest about France’s role in England’s religious conflicts?
[166] GRAMMAR AND STYLE Reread lines 308–313. Notice that Swift uses subordinate clauses beginning with because, when, and whom to convey specific details of the fantasy he is creating.
[167] FANTASY Reread lines 332–346. What message about people and nations does Swift convey through the fantasy of the tiny
Lilliputians and the giant Brobdingnagians?
[168] FANTASY Reread lines 416–430. How do the details in this passage enhance the depiction of Gulliver’s life in Brobdingnag?
[169] HISTORICAL CONTEXT Reread lines 454–464 and the accompanying footnotes. In what ways are Swift’s own political views reflected in the questions and comments of the king?
[170] AUTHOR’S PURPOSE Reread lines 23–28. What is the main idea of this paragraph? What might have motivated Johnson
to make this point in his preface?
[171] GRAMMAR AND STYLE Reread lines 36–40. Notice how Johnson uses parallelism —listing a series of phrases beginning with from —to emphasize his careful research.
[172] VOICE Reread lines 47–57. Identify the words and phrases that give this passage a scholarly tone.
[173] VOICE Reread the entry for the verb hiss. Which words indicate Johnson’s distinctive voice and would not likely be found in a more objective dictionary entry?
[174] ELEGY What mood is created by the images in the first three stanzas?
[175] MAKE INFERENCES Reread lines 17–24. What do you infer about the lives and the values of those buried?
[176] ELEGY What observation about death is made in lines 33–36?
[177] MAKE INFERENCES What can you infer about the speaker’s life and values from the way he imagines himself described in lines 98–108?
[178] ELEGY In lines 117–128, the speaker imagines his own epitaph, an inscription on his tomb. How does he want to be viewed upon his death?
[179] SYMBOL In lines 13–18, Blake uses the symbol of the lamb to connect the poem’s three characters. What is he suggesting about the relationship between them?
[180] COMPARE AND CONTRAST How does Blake’s tone in lines 17–20 differ from the tone used to discuss creation in “The Lamb”?
[181] DIALECT Reread lines 1–6. What does the dialect in this stanza help to characterize about the speaker?
[182] DIALECT Why do you think Burns mainly uses Standard English and not Scottish dialect in this stanza?
[183] MAKE INFERENCES How would you paraphrase these lines?
[184] CLARIFY MEANING Reread lines 43–48 aloud. Use context clues and the side notes to paraphrase this passage.
[185] Literary History The song “Auld Lang Syne” uses the words of Burns’ poem which appeared in James Johnson’s publication Scots Musical Museum (1787–1803). According to Burns, the words were not entirely of his composition but were taken down by him “from an old man’s singing.”
[186] The Stirrings of Romanticism How does this stanza suggest the importance of human relationships and emotions? Answer: This stanza implies that friendships and personal relationships, which are based on emotional attachment, are worth cherishing and celebrating.
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