Domestic reforms and foreign affairs.

It is owing to these great changes abroad that the affairs which are called "imperial" — that is, questions touching not only Great Britain and Ireland, but the British Empire at large. — began to be discussed with almost much eagerness as the adoption of Corn Laws and the general elections in the previous century. Though popular attention was inverted largely to imperial questions, some important domestic reforms were introduced under the government of Lord Salisbury.

Ireland, previously so disturbed, on the whole became tran­quil, and made some material progress, especially in agriculture. Mr. Gladstone's Land Act settled rents for fifteen years. This peri­od came to an end in 1896, and a new Land Law was therefore passed, which continued and extended the provisions of the former Act, mainly in favour of the tenants.

Two years later, in 1898, the Irish Local Government Act gave to Ireland the priviledge of local self-government by means of County and District Councils, such as it was established in England by the Act of 1888. In 1889 a new department of government was created in Ireland, wide powers and a large grant of money were given to her for the encouragement of agriculture and the improvement of technical instruction.

The "Board of Agriculture" has already produced excellent results, by teaching new and better methods of farming, and inducing the farmers to cooperate for agricultural purposes. Nevertheless, the animousity of the Irish members of Parliament towards the English government, and their determination to be content with nothing but Home Rule continued to exist.

Perhaps, the chief of the few Acts of great importance affecting Great Britain, which were passed in 1895-1900, was the London Local Government Act (1899). It divided London (outside the "City") into sixteen districts or "boroughs", and established in each of these a municipal council, with a mayor and alderman. The London County Council, created in 1888, was left to manage, as before, the affairs of London as a whole.

Other important Acts were mainly concerned with social or economical matters, and with education. The Employers' Liability Act (1897) secured to almost all classes of workmen compensation in case of accident, and it was extended in 1900 to agricultural labourers. In the same year (1900) local authorities began to take care of the improvements of the dwellings of the working classes.

Other Acts were passed to help the Voluntary Schools and the poorer Board Schools (1897), while a new university for London was established by an Act of 1898. Universities were also set up in Birmingham and in Wales. The Government, however, failed to take care of the great question of education as a whole; and a Bill concerning elementary and secondary education, which was intro­duced in 1896, met with so much criticism that it was withdrawn.

The federation of the six colonies in Australia was sanctioned by Act of Parliament in 1900, and thus a great new state, comparable with the Dominion of Canada, began to exist. The population of free people hoping to find their fortune in Australia grew very rapidly, they came here to have their own land, to make new pastures, to grow up cattle and sheep, and, of course, to work in the golden mines.

In 1898 uniform penny postage had been extended throughout the British Empire, and thus another link was added to the chain which united the mother country to her children oversea.

In spite of foreign competition and of disastrous strikes, such as those of the engineers in 1897 and the coal miners in 1898, the country has enjoyed during this period great commercial and industrial prosperity. On the other hand, the cost of army and navy amounted very high, without counting the enormous expences of the Transvaal War.

It was clear that Britain had to bear those great and increasing gardens and not to be allowed her industry and commerce — the chief sources of her wealth — to decay.

Passing to foreign affairs, we observe that the peace of Europe was undisturbed during this period, except by troubles with the Turkish Empire. These troubles led, however, to a quarrel between Turkey and Greece, and threatened at one time to begin a general European war.

Lord Salisbury, on coming into office, resolved, like his predeces­sor, that Britain could not safely interfere, single-handed, to save the Armenians from Turkish barbarians. He tried, however, to persuade the other powers to support him in making the Turks to retreat, and he so far succeeded that in October 1895 the Sultan consented to a plan of reforms. These promises were, however, of no effect, and more massa­cres of Armenians occurred, both in Asia Minor and in Constantinople.

In 1896 the insurrection in Crete was renewed, and terrible atrocies were committed on both sides. Next year the Greeks sent troops to Crete to help their compatriots, upon which the powers transferred in order to settle the dispute.

The Greek government rejected their terms and attacked Tur­key, but in the war that followed the Turks were completely victori­ous! The powers again intervened, made peace between Turkey and Greece in November 1897, and eventually declared Crete "autono­mous" that is, a self-governing state under the nominal sovereig­nity of the Sultan (1898).

While Lord Salisbury was engaged in attempts to settle the Eastern Question, Great Britain had a sudden threat of war from an unexpected quarter — namely, the United States. For many years there had been difficulties with the Republic of Venezuela about the frontier between that state and British Guiana. Few persons in this country knew that such a dispute existed, but the people of the United States became excited with the thought that Great Britain was oppressing Venezuela, and the American Government demanded that the Great Britain should submit the question to arbitration.

Lord Salisbury denied the right of the United States to inter­fere, on this President Cleveland announced that the American Government would appoint a commission of its own to decide the boundary question, and would, if necessary, force its decision upon Great Britain (December 1895).

This threat seemed at a certain moment very likely to lead to war. but fortunately both parties wished to have a compromise, and in February 1897 there was appointed a joint court of arbitration, which agreed to conditions which secured the most important interests of colonists in British Guiana. This court sat in Paris, and it gave its decision in October 1899, in favour of a boundary nearly correspond­ing with that which the British Government had previously demanded. A general treaty of arbitration, for settling all disputes between the two nations, was agreed on by the British and American Governments in January 1897, but was rejected by the American Sen­ate. This was unfortunate, for, had the treaty been accepted, several difficult questions still outstanding between the two countries might have been settled.

Nevertheless, a good understanding with America took the place of the former ill-feeling; and the friendship between the two great divisions of the English-speaking countries was strengthened by their attitude during the war between Spain and the United States, which broke out in 1898, over the question of Cuba. A successful conclu­sion of the war for America has been largely due to the fact that Lord Salisbury let it be known that if other European states joined Spain, Great Britain would throw her weight into the opposite side.

To complete the history of British-American relations, it should be added that in November 1899 Lord Salisbury came to an agree­ment with Germany and the United States, by which Britain got the rights, almost without compensation, in the Samoan Islands.

In August 1898, while events in China were causing a little anxiety because of the war which should result, the Czar of Russia suddenly issued proposals for a general disarmament, or at least a large reduction of European armies. The action of Russia at the time did not inspire a belief that this proposal was seriously meant; nor did it seem that such a step, though desirable, was practicable. Neverthe­less, in 1899 a Peace Congress, to which all the great powers sent delegates, met at the Hague. No progress was made towards general disarmament, but it was agreed to establish there an International Court of Arbitration. A Second Congress, in 1907, discussed many points which had become prominent during the Russo-Japanese War, but the original question in armaments had no nearer solution.

NAMES AND EXPRESSIONS

The "Board of Agriculture" —управление сельским хозяйством

with nothing but Home Rule = only with Home Rule

the London Local Government Act — Акт (постановление) о

местном самоуправлении Лондона

single-handed — в одиночку

Crete [kri:t] — Крит

Venezuela [, venə 'zwi:lə, -zweilə]— Венесуэла

Guiana [gi'a:nə] - Гвиана

Cleveland [' kli:vlənd], Stephen Grover(1837-1908) —Кливленд

Samoan Islands [ sə'məuən ailənds ] — Самоанские острова

Hague [heig] — Гаага

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