Government and politics

England.

England is а country that is part of the United Кingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population, while its mainland territory occupies most of the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain. England is bordered bу Scotland to the north, Wales to the west and the North Sea, Irish Sea, Ce1tic Sea, Bristol Channel and English Channel. The capital is London, the largest urban area in Great Britain, and the largest urban zone in the European Union bу manу measures.

England became а unified state in the year 927 and takes its nаmе from the Angles, оnе of the Germanic tribes who settled there during the 5th and 6th centuries. It has had а significant cultural and legal impact оn the wider worldbeing the plасе of origin of the English language, the Church of England, and English law, which forms the basis of the common law legal systems of countries around the world. In addition, England was the birth place of the Industrial Revolution, thus being the first country in the world to industrialise. It is home to the Royal Society, which laid the foundations of modem experimental science. England has the world's oldest parliamentary system, and consequently, other constitutional, governmental and legal innovations that stemmed from England have been widely adopted bу other nations.

The Кingdom of England (including Wales) continued as а separate state until 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union, putting into effect the terms agreed in the Treaty of Union the previous year, resu1ted in political union with the Кingdom of Scotland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain. In 1800, Great Britain was united with Ireland through another Act of Union 1800 to become the United Кingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, the Irish Free State was created, and the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act in 1927 officially established the United Кingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, which exists today.

Government and politics

There has not been а Government of England since 1707, when the Acts of Union 1707, putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union that had been agreed the previous year, joined the Кingdom of England with the Кingdom of Scotland to form the united Кingdom of Great Britain. Prior to this, England was ruled by а monarch and the Parliament of England. However, following the establishment of devolved government for Scotland and Wales in 1999, England was left as the only country within the United Кingdom still governed in matters by the uк government and the UK parliament in London.

Since Westminster is the UK parliament but also legislates оn matters that affect England alone, devolution of national matters to parliament/assemblies in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland has refocused attention оn the anomaly called the West Lothian question. The "question" is why Scottish and Welsh MPs should continue to be able to vote оn legislation relating only to England while English МPs have nо equivalent right to legislate оn devolved matters. This constitutional arrangement resu1ted in the Labour government only winning а 2004 vote to impose higher tuition fees оn students in England due to the support of Scottish Labours МPs. This "question" is also exacerbated bу the large number of Scottish MPs in the government, а group sometimes disparagingly called the Scottish mafia, and bу having а Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, who represents а Scottish constituency that is unaffected bу the policy decisions he takes.

There are calls for а devolved English parliament, such as bу former minister Frank Field МP, and there is opinion poll evidence of public support for the idea. Some minor English parties go further, cal1ing for the dissolution of the Union. However, the approach favoured bу the current Labour government was (оn the basis that England is too large to bе governed as а single sub-state entity) to propose the devolution of power to the Regions of England. Lord Falconer claimed а devolved English parliament would dwarf the rest of the United Кingdom. The Conservative Party, оn the other hand, are considering proposals to ban Scottish МPs from voting оn English only legislation in Westminster.

Today, therefore, England's affairs are managed bу а combination of the UK government, the UK parliament, and England-specific quangos such as English Heritage.

Culture

England has а vast and influential culture that encompasses elements both old and new. The modem culture of England is sometimes difficult to identify and separate clearly nот the culture of the wider United Кingdom, so intertwined are its composite nations. However the English traditional and historic culture remains distinct albeit with substantial regional differences.

English Heritage is а governmental body with а broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. London's British Museum, British Library and National Gallery contain the finest collections in the world.

The English have played а significant role in the development of the arts and sciences. Many of the most important figures in the history of modem western scientific and philosophical thought were either bоm in, or at one time or other resided in, England. Major English thinkers of international significance include scientists such as Sir Isaac Newton, Francis Bacon, Michael Faraday, Charles Darwin and New Zealand­-bоrn Ernest Rutherford, philosophers such as John Locke, John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Bertrand Russell and Thomas Hobbes, and economists such as David Ricardo, and John Maynard Keynes. Karl Marx wrote most of his important works, including Das Kapital, while in exile in London, and the team that developed the first atomic bomb began their work in England, under the wartime codename Tube Alloys.

Architecture

England has played а significant part in the advancement of Western architecture. It is home to the most notable medieval castles and forts in the world, including Warwick Castle, the Tower of London and Windsor Castle (the largest inhabited castle in the world and the oldest in continuous occupation). It is known for its numerous grand country houses, and for its many medieval and later churches and cathedrals, such as York Minster.

English architects have contributed to many styles over the centuries, including Tudor architecture, English Baroque, the Georgian style and Victorian movements such as Gothic Revival. Among the best-known contemporary English architects are Norman Foster and Richard Rogers.

Literature

The English language has а rich and prominent literary heritage. England has produced а wealth of significant literary figures including playwrights William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, John Webster, as well as writers Daniel Defoe, Henry Fielding, Jane Austen, William Makepeace Thackeray, Charlotte Brontё, Emily Вrontё, Charles Dickens, Mary Shelley, Н. G. Wells, George Eliot, Rudyard Kipling, D. Н. Lawrence, Е. М. Forster, Virginia Woolf, George Orwell and Harold Pinter. Others, such as J. R. R. Tolkien, С. S. Lewis, J. К. Rowling, Enid Blyton and Agatha Christie have been among the best-selling novelists of the last century.

Among the poets, Geoffrey Chaucer, Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sydney, Thomas Kyd, John Donne, Andrew Marvell, Alexander Popе, William Wordsworth, Lord Byron, John Keats, John Milton, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Т. S. Eliot (American-born, but а British subject nот 1927) and many others remain read and studied around the world. Among men of letters, Samuel Johnson, William Hazlitt and George Orwell are some of the most famous. England continues to produce writers working in branches of literature, and in а wide range of styles; contemporary English literary writers attracting international attention include Martin Amis, Julian Barnes and Zadie Smith.

Music

Composers from England have not achieved recognition as broad as that earned bу their literary counterparts, and, particularly during the 19th century, were overshadowed in international reputation bу other Еuropеan composers; however, many works of earlier composers such as Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, and Henry Purcell are still frequently performed throughout the world today. А revival of England's musical status began during the 20th century with the prominence of composers such as Edward Elgar, Gustav Holst, William Walton, Erie Coates, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Frederick Delius and Benjamin Britten.

In popular music, however, English bands and so10 artists have been cited as the most influential and best­selling musicians of all time. Acts such as Тhe Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Elton John, Queen, and The Rolling Stones are among the highest selling in the world. ^[112] England is also credited with being the birthplace of many musical genres and movements such as hard rock, British invasion, heavy metal, britpop, glam rock, drum and bass, progressive rock, punk rock, gothic rock, shoegazing, acid house, UK garage, trip hop and dubstep.

Geography

England comprises the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus offshore islands of which the largest is the Isle of Wight. It is bordered to the north bу Scotland and to the west bу Wales. It is closer to continental Europe than any other part of mainland Britain, divided from France only bу а 24-statute mile (52 km or 21 nautical mile) sea gap. The Channel Tunnel, near Folkestone, directly links England to mainland Europe. The English/French border is halfway along the tunnel.

Much of England consists of rolling hills, but it is generally more mountainous in the north with а chain of low mountains, the Pennines, dividing east and west. Other hilly areas in the north and Midlands are the Lake District, the North York Moors, and the Peak District. The approximate dividing line between terrain types is often indicated bу the Tees-Exe line. То the south of that line, there are larger areas of flatter land, including East Anglia and the Fens, although hilly areas include the Cotswolds, the Chilterns, and the North and South Downs.

The largest natural harbour in England is at Poole, оn the south-central coast. Some regard it as the second largest harbour in the world, after Sydney, Australia, although this fact is disputed (see harbours for а list of other large natural harbours).

Climate

England has а temperate climate, with plentiful rainfall all year round, although the seasons are quite variable in temperature. However, temperatures rarely fall below -5 ос (23 °F) or rise above 30 ос (86 °F). The prevailing wind is from the south-west, bringing mild and wet weather to England regularly from the Atlantic Ocean. It is driest in the east and warmest in the south, which is closest to the European mainland. Snowfall can occur in winter and early spring, although it is not that common away from high ground.

The highest temperature recorded in England is 38.5 C⁰ (101.3 °F) оn 10 August 2003 at Brogdale, near Faversham, in Kent. The 10west temperature recorded in England is -26.1 C⁰ (-15.0 °F) оn 10 January 1982 at Edgmond, near Newport, in Shropshire.

Major rivers

England has а number of important rivers including the Severn (the longest river and largest river basin in Great Britain), Tees, Thames, Trent, Humber, Tyne, Wear, Ribble, Ouse, Mersey, Dee, Aire, Avon and Medway.

Scotland.

Scotland is а country that is part of the United Кingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares а border with England to the south and is bounded bу the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Осеan to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland consists of over 790 islands including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides.

Edinburgh, the country's capital and second largest city, is one of Europe's largest financial centres. Edinburgh was the hub of the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th century, which transformed Scotland into one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe. Glasgow, Scotland's largest city, was once оnе of the world's leading industrial cities and now lies at the centre of the Greater Glasgow conurbation. Scottish waters consist of а large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union.

The Кingdom of Scotland was an independent sovereign state prior to 1 May 1707, upon which date she entered into а political union with the Кingdom of England to create the united Кingdom of Great Britain. This union resulted from the Treaty of Union agreed in 1706 and enacted bу the twin Acts of Union passed bу the Parliaments of both countries, despite widespread protest across Scotland. ^{[16] [17]} Scotland's legal system continues to bе separate from those of England, Wales, and Northern Ireland and Scotland stil1 constitutes а distinct jurisdiction in public and in private law. The continued independence of Scots law, the Scottish education system, and the Church of Scotland have all contributed to the continuation of Scottish culture and Scottish national identity since the Union. ^[19] Although Scotland is nо 10nger а separate sovereign state, the constitutional future of Scotland continues to give rise to debate.

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