Semiotics for Beginners Paradigms and Syntagms

PARADIGMATIC AND SYNTAGMATIC

Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language | Date: 1998

PARADIGMATIC AND SYNTAGMATIC are contrasting terms in (structural) LINGUISTICS. Every item of language has a paradigmatic relationship with every other item which can be substituted for it (such as cat with dog), and a syntagmatic relationship with items which occur within the same construction (for example, in The cat sat on the mat, cat with the and sat on the mat). The relationships are like axes, as shown in the accompanying diagram.

			syntagmatic
	The	cat	sat	on	the	mat.
paradigmatic	His	dog	slept	under	that	table.
	Our	parrot	spoke	in	its	cage.

Paradigmatic contrasts at the level of sounds allow one to identify the phonemes (minimal distinctive sound units) of a language: for example, bat, fat, mat contrast with one another on the basis of a single sound, as do bat, bet, bit, and bat, bap, ban.

On the lexical level, paradigmatic contrasts indicate which words are likely to belong to the same word class (part of speech): cat, dog, parrot in the diagram are all nouns, sat, slept, perched are all verbs. Syntagmatic relations between words enable one to build up a picture of co-occurrence restrictions within SYNTAX, for example, the verbs hit, kick have to be followed by a noun (Paul hit the wall, not * Paul hit), but sleep, doze do not normally do so (Peter slept, not * Peter slept the bed). On the semantic level, paradigmatic substitutions allow items from a semantic set to be grouped together, for example Angela came on Tuesday (Wednesday, Thursday, etc.), while syntagmatic associations indicate compatible combinations: rotten apple, the duck quacked, rather than * curdled apple, * the duck squeaked.

Semiotics for Beginners Paradigms and Syntagms

The syntagmatic (concerning positioning) and paradigmatic (concerning substitution) differences are often presented as 'axes', where the horizontal axis is the syntagmatic and the vertical axis is the paradigmatic. The plane of the syntagm is that of the combination of 'this- and -this- and -this' (as in the sentence, 'the man cried') whilst the plane of the paradigm is that of the selection of 'this- or -this- or -this' (e.g. the replacement of the last word in the same sentence with 'died' or 'sang'). Whilst syntagmatic relations are possibilities of combination, paradigmatic relations are functional contrasts - they involve differentiation.

Paradigmatic relations are those which belong to the same set by virtue of a function they share. A sign enters into paradigmatic relations with all the signs which can also occur in the same context but not at the same time'. In a given context, one member of the paradigm set is structurally replaceable with another. 'Signs are in paradigmatic relation when the choice of one excludes the choice of another '.

A syntagm is an orderly combination of interacting signifiers which forms a meaningful whole within a text - sometimes, following Saussure, called a 'chain'. In language, a sentence, for instance, is a syntagm of words; so too are paragraphs and chapters. 'There are always larger units, composed of smaller units, with a relation of interdependence holding between both'; syntagms can contain other syntagms. Syntagmatic relations are the various ways in which elements within the same text may be related to each other. Syntagms are created by the linking of signifiers from paradigm sets which are chosen on the basis of whether they are conventionally regarded as appropriate or may be required by some rule system (e.g. grammar).

(***In this framing, form is a syntagmatic dimension whilst content is a paradigmatic dimension. However, form is also subject to paradigmatic choices and content to syntagmatic arrangement.- *** for the smartest guys))))

Crucial for the systemic description of language are the two fundamental types of relations between lingual units: paradigmatic and syntagmatic. The term “syntagmatic relations” is derived from the word “ syntagma ”, i.e. a linear combination of units of the same level. Lingual units form various lingual strings, sequences, or constructions. For example, in the sentence He started laughing we can distinguish syntagmatic (linear) relations between the sounds [h+i:] = [hi:]; [s+t+a:+t+i+d] = [sta:tid]; etc.; the morphemes are connected syntagmatically within words: start+ed = started; laugh+ing = laughing; the combinations of words form syntagmas within phrases and sentences: He + started; started + laughing. The sentence can be also connected with other sentences by syntagmatic relations in the process of communication, e.g.: He started laughing. Everybody thought it was rather odd.

The other type of relations, opposed to syntagmatic, are called paradigmatic. The term is derived from the word “ paradigm ” and denotes the relations between lingual elements in paradigms in the system of language. Ferdinand de Saussure called these relations ‘associative relations’, implying the way different linguistic units are arranged and associated with each other in human minds. Classical grammatical paradigms are those making up grammatical categories of words, or, morphological categories, e.g., the category of number or case of the noun: toy – toys; children – children’s, etc. Paradigm, in most general terms, is defined as a system of variants of the same unit, ‘the invariant’; paradigmatic relations are the relations between the variants of the lingual unit within a paradigm Not only words, but all lingual units are organized in the system of language paradigmatically. For example, sentences may be organized in paradigms according to the category “the purpose of communication”; in such paradigms declarative, interrogative and imperative sentence patterns are opposed, e.g .: He laughed. – Did he laugh? – Let him laugh. Paradigmatic relations exist in the other spheres of language as well. For example, paradigmatic relations connect vowels and consonants, voiced and voiceless consonants, synonyms and antonyms, topical groups of words, etc. Still, paradigmatic relations are of primary importance for grammar, as the grammar of language is above all systemic.

Syntagmatics – linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech as distinct from associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language.

Paradigmatics – 1) associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language as distinct from linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech (syntagmatics); relation of units in absentia (e.g. synonymic, antonymic relationships); 2) an approach to language when the elements of its system are regarded as associated units joined by oppositional relationship.

ПАРАДИГМАТИЧЕСКИЕ ОТНОШЕНИЯ, отношения противопоставления нескольких элементов языка, выбора одного из взаимоисключающих элементов; единицы яз. объединяются, т.о., в сознании (в сознании, а не в реальности!) пользующегося языком, несмотря на невозможность реального их объединения в акте речи. Они соответствуют функции "или — или" и противостоят синтагматическим отношениям (отношениям сосуществования элементов языка в момент их реального объединения в акте речи и соответствующим функции "и — и"); П.о. нелинейны и не одновременны. По-видимому, существует зависимость синтагматич. характеристик формы от её парадигматич. свойств. П.о. впервые описаны Ф.де Соссюром как противопоставленные синтагматические ассоциативные отношения

СИНТАГМАТИЧЕСКИЕ ОТНОШЕНИЯ, связи и зависимости между языковыми элементами (единицами любой сложности), одновременно сосуществующими в линейном ряду (тексте, речи), напр., между соседними звуками, морфами и т.п. Термин введен Ф.де Соссюром. Часто употребляется как эквивалент понятию функций у последовательно соединяемых языковых элементов в процессе речи. С.о. выделяются в языке в противоположность парадигматическим отношениям, или ассоциативным связям, образуя область исследования синтагматики.

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