изводятся, распределяются и потребляются. 13) Процесс индустриализации вызвал значительные изменения и имел важные последствия. 14) Преобладающей формой капитализма сразу после промышленной революции была так называемая система свободного предпринимательства. 15) Без контроля со стороны правительства фирмы могут ввести потребителей в заблуждение, подвергнуть опасности жизнь своих рабочих и даже обмануть вкладчиков своих компаний. 16) Хотя мир сегодня можно воспринимать как единый рынок, прибыли в бизнесе распределяются неравномерно. 17) Получив политическую независимость, бывшие колонии не смогли создать свою собственную промышленность и технологию, поэтому их экономическая зависимость от развитых стран продолжается. 18) Появление международных корпораций увеличило безработицу в развитых странах и способствовало росту неравенства и экономической зависимости развивающихся стран. 19) Во многих отношениях они превратились в угрозу политическому суверенитету этих стран. 20) Вполне очевидно, что международные корпорации изменяют экономическую жизнь и преобразуют общества, в которых они действуют.
II. Reread the texts of unit seven again and discuss the problem- questions given in the learning objectives in the introduction tothe unit.
III. Comment on the following quotations thinking like sociologists.
1) «Politics is war without bloodshed, while war is politics with bloodshed» (Mao Tse-tung, 1966).
2) «Politics is the art of acquiring, holding and wielding power» (Indira Gandhi, 1975).
3) «One machine can do the work of fifty ordinary men. No machine can do the work of one extraordinary man» (Albert Hubbard «The Philistine», 1899).
4) «From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs» (Karl Marx).
Unit Eight. EDUCATION AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION. SOCIAL INEQUALITY
Looking Ahead
Unit eight presents the last social institution, education. It considers different sociological perspectives on education and examines its functions. Particular attention is given to three factors that promote differential access to higher education.
Then the unit focuses on the structure and processes of social inequality. It defines stratification as a most important and complex subject of sociological investigation and examines its different forms.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to answer the following questions:
1. How does education transmit the norms and values of a culture and function as an agent of social control and change?
2. How does education function to meet the needs of modern societies?
3. Is it possible to change anyone’s behavior simply by treating the person differently?
4. Can life be organized without inequality and stratification?
5. How do sociologists measure social class?
6. What types of contact exist between dominant and subordinate social groups?
7. Why is it that, despite outnumbering men, women are viewed by sociologists as a subordinate minority both outside and inside the home?
8. Do humans tend to accept a negative attitude to the elderly? Do the elderly precisely fit the definition of a minority group?
Text XV. EDUCATION
In a sense, education is an aspect of socialization — the lifelong process of learning the attitudes, values, and behavior appropriate to
individuals as members of a particular culture. Thus, education is a process of learning in which some persons consciously and formally teach while others adopt the social role of learner.
Like with other social institutions there are different sociological perspectives on education. The functionalist view stresses the functions that education performs. The most basic function of education is the transmission of knowledge. Sociologists call it a rather conservative function because education in any society transmits the dominant, or the existing culture. Through schooling, each generation of young people studies the existing beliefs, norms, and values of a distinctive culture. They learn respect for social control and established social institutions, such as religion, the family, and government.
Promoting social and political integration is another important function of education because it transforms a population composed of different racial, ethnic, and religious groups into a society whose members share — to some extent at least — a common identity. Schools socialize children into the norms, beliefs, and values of the dominant culture. The integrative function of education is obvious through its emphasis on promoting a common language.
The third function of education is maintaining social control Schoolchildren are introduced to standards of proper conduct in public life, students are trained for what is ahead in their adult lives. Like other social institutions, education prepares young people to lead productive and orderly lives in the larger society. They are taught various skills and values which will be essential in their future labor positions, whether it be the assembly line or the office.
Thus far, we have discussed the conservative functions of education. Yet, education can stimulate or bring about desired social change if it is open to new ideas and social and political viewpoints.
Another sociological approach to education is the conflict perspective. It takes a critical view of the social institution of education in the contemporary capitalist society by stating that education maintains social class differences and sorts pupils according to their social class background. Conflict theorists point out three factors that contribute to this role of education:
1. Public versus private schooling,. Private high schools provide a better education than public high schools and students who graduate from private schools are much more likely to enter colleges and universities than public school graduates are. Thus, schools deliberately sort and select students either for future high-status positions or for subordinate ones.
2. Economic disparities between school communities. Very often schools are financed through local property taxes. Therefore, upper- and middle-class schools get more funding, better facilities, and more experienced teachers than low-class schools do.
3. Tracking (or streaming) students into curriculum groups. This refers to the practice of placing students in specific curriculum groups on the basis of intelligence test scores and other criteria. Tracking begins very early, often during the first grade and puts children from low-income families at a disadvantage.
Differential access to higher education and tracking are evident in many nations around the world. In the view of conflict theorists, the educational inequalities resulting from funding disparities and tracking are designed to meet the needs of modern capitalist societies.
In George Bernard Shaw’s play «Pygmalion» the flower girl Eliza Doolittle is transformed into a «lady» by Professor Henry Higgins. He changes her manner of speech and teaches her the etiquette of «high society». But is it actually possible to change anyone’s behavior simply by treating the person differently? Researchers who view education from interactionistperspective have been particularly interested in this question. They suggest that if we treat people in particular ways, they may fulfill our expectations. The authors of the book «Pygmalion in the Classroom» prove that teacher’s expectations about a student’s performance can sometimes have an impact on the student’s actual achievements.
Clearly, education has become a vast and complex social institution throughout the world. It prepares citizens for the various roles demanded by other social institutions, such as the family, government, and the economy. In many respects, today’s educational institutions, when viewed as formal organizations, are similar to factories, hospitals, and business firms.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
I. Read and translate the text using a dictionaryif necessary.
II. Find in the text English equivalents for the following:
пожизненный (непрерывный), сознательно, принимать роль, взгляд (точка зрения) на, подчеркивать (выделять), господствующий, обучение, уважение к, учрежденный, содействовать (способствовать), расовый, этнический, представлять единство (идентичность), до некоторой степени, общий язык, поддерживать (осуществлять), нормы поведения, общественная жизнь, дисциплинированный, существенный, до сих пор, вызывать изменения, точка зрения, подход к, иметь критическую точку зрения о, классовые различия, подразделять в соответствии с классовым происхождением, указывать на (отмечать) что-либо, намеренно, экономическое неравенство, община (общность), налог на собственность, финансирование, оборудование, опытный, организация групп с особой программой обучения, коэффициент умственного развития, критерий — критерии, учебная программа (Sg, Р1), поставить кого-либо в невыгодное положение, дифференцированный (отличительный) доступ к, проистекать от (иметь результатом), обращаться с кем-либо, ожидание (надежда), во многих отношениях, подобный (сходный).
III. Supplythe missing words and word combinations choosing among those given below.
1) In a sense, education is an aspect of... — the... process of learning the attitudes, values, and behavior... to individuals as members of a... culture. 2) Education in any society transmits the... or the... culture. 3) Through... young people study the existing..., norms, and values of a... culture. 4) Education transforms a population into a society whose members... a common identity. 5) The integrative function of education is... through its... on promoting a... language. 6) Education prepares young people to lead... and... lives in the larger society.
7) Education can stimulate or... desired social control. 8) Conflict theorists state that education maintains.... 9) Education sorts pupils according to their social class.... 10) Very often schools are... through... property taxes. 11) Tracking puts children from... families.... 12) The educational inequalities... from these factors are designed to... of modem capitalist societies. 13) Professor Henry Higgins changes Elise’s manners of speech and teaches her the etiquette of.... 14) Interactionist theorists suggest that, if we... people in particular ways, they may... our expectations. 15) Teacher... about a student’s... can have an impact on the student’s actual.... 16)... today’s schools are... to factories, hospitals, and business firms.
in many respects, similar, expectations, performance, achievements, treat, fulfill, «high society», resulting, meet the needs, low-income, at a disadvantage, background, financed, local, social class differences, bring about, productive, orderly, obvious, emphasis, common, share, schooling, beliefs, distinctive, dominant, existing, socialization lifelong, appropriate, particular.
IV. Studythe following word combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
appropriate to, through schooling, to have respect for (but: to respect smth), to promote smth, to transform smth into smth, to some extent, to socialize smb into smth, through an emphasis on, to maintain smth, standards of proper conduct, to be ahead, to teach various skills, to bring about smth, to take a view of, to provide a better education, to graduate from a private (public) school, to be financed through, to get better facilities, to put smb at.a disadvantage, differential access to, to result from, to treat smb.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
I. Reread the text and answer the following questions:
1) What is education if viewed as an aspect of socialization? 2) What is the functionalist view on education? 3) What are the functions of education in modern society? 4) How can you prove that there are the conservative functions of education? 5) Can education bring about desired social change? 6) What is the conflict perspective on education?
7) What factors prove that education maintains social class differences?
8) Why are educational inequalities evident in many nations around the world? 9) How do interactionist theorists view education? 10) How can you prove that education has become a vast and complex social institution throughout the world? 11) Speak on education as viewed from different sociological perspectives. Which of them do you share? Give your arguments for or against.
III. Describe the educational system in Russia and its distinctive features employing the ideas and terms from the text.
IV. Comment on the following topics thinking like sociologists.
1) Public versus private schooling. Are you for or against it?
2) Tracking students into curriculum groups. What about tracking talented and gifted students into curriculum groups? 3) A teacher-expectancy impact. Do you accept or question the validity of this «Pygmalion effect»? Were there «Pygmalion’s in the classroom» among your school teachers?
V. Express your opinion:
a) of the education you got at school: its level, school facilities, teachers and administrators. Are you proud of your school? Were your school years happy?
b) of the education you are getting at Ivanovo State Power University. Does the РИТМ[1] technology truly promote good academic teaching, encourage student creative thought and develop students’ aspirations? What do you think of its emphasis on precise and constant current control of students’ actual achievements in studies?
Text XVI. SOCIAL INEQUALITY
Ever since people began to speculate about the nature of human society, their attention has been drawn to the differences that can be easily observed between individuals and groups within any society. The term social inequality describes a condition in which members of a society have unequal amounts of wealth, prestige, or power. Wealth accounts for all of a person’s material assets, including land and other types of property. Prestige refers to the respect with which a person’s occupation is regarded by society. Power is the ability to exercise one’s will over others.
All cultures are characterized by some degree of social inequality. When a system is based on a hierarchy of groups having unequal economic rewards and power in a society, sociologists call it stratification.
Stratification is one of the most important and complex subjects of sociological investigation because of its great influence on human interactions and institutions. Of course, each of us wants a «fair share» of society’s rewards, and we often come into conflict over how these rewards should be divided. Family members argue over who should be given money to buy new clothing or take a vacation; nations go to war over precious resources such as oil or minerals. As a result, sociologists have directed their attention to the implications of stratification in ranking members of a society and the ways in which social inequalities are passed on individuals, groups and generations.
Stratification is universal and social scientific research has revealed that inequality exists in all societies. Viewed from the sociological perspective stratification has several forms:
1. Stratification by social class, based on income differences and unequal sources of wealth. American sociologists have worked out the class system of the United States using a five-class model. About 1 percent of Americans are categorized as upper-class, a group limited to the very wealthy. These people form intimate associations with one another in exclusive clubs and social circles. By contrast, the lower class, consisting of approximately 20 percent of Americans, is populated by many of the elderly, as well as single mothers with dependent children and people who cannot find regular work. This class lacks both wealth and income and is too weak politically to exercise significant power.
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Between these two classes are the upper middle class, the lower middle class, and the working class. The upper middle class, numbering about 10 percent of the population, is composed of professionals such as doctors, lawyers, and architects. They participate extensively in politics and exercise leadership roles in different associations.The lower middle class, which accounts for approximately 30 percent of the American population, includes less wealthy professionals, such as teachers and nurses, owners of small businesses, clerical workers. The working class, about 40 percent of the population, are people holding regular manual or blue-collar jobs (as contrasted to white-collar jobs, i.e. employees). Yet, certain members of this class, such as electricians, may have higher incomes than people in the lower middle class.
2. Stratification by race and ethnicity, based on minority groups division. When sociologists define a minority group, they are primarily concerned with the economic and political power, or powerlessness of this group. Thus, a minority group is a subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives than the members of a dominant or majority group have over theirs. However, in certain instances, a group which constitutes a numerical majority can still be a minority group in sociological terms (for example, women).
The term «racialgroup» is used to describe a minority (sometimes a rather dominant) group which is set apart from others by obvious physical differences. Whites, blacks, and Asian Americans are all considered racial groups within the United States.
Unlike racial groups, an ethnic group is set apart from others primarily because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns, for example, Jews.
In most societies, physical differences tend to be more visible than ethnic differences, that is why stratification along racial lines is less subject to change than stratification along ethnic lines. But in a biological sense, there are no «pure races» and no «physical» traits that can be used to describe one group to the exclusion of all others.
Racial and ethnic groups can relate to one another in a wide variety of ways, ranging from friendships and intermarriages to behaviors caused by prejudice, i.e. a negative attitude towards an entire category of people. This negative attitude can have different forms: racism (the belief that one race is superior and all others are innately inferior), discrimination (denying opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups), genocide (the deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation), segregation (physical separation of two groups of people in terms of residence, workplace, and social functions) and its extreme form apartheid (separation of blacks, coloreds, and Asians from the dominant whites), anti-Semitism (Anti-Jewish prejudice). Contrasted to all these
negative attitudes is pluralism, i.e. mutual respect between the various groups in a society for one another’s cultures, which allows minorities to express their own cultures without experiencing prejudice.
3. Stratification by gender, based on sexism, i.e. the ideology that one sex is superior to the other. Although numerically a majority, in many respects women fit the definition of a subordinate minority group within contemporary society. Sociological studies indicate that this is a men’s world and there are no societies in it in which women play the decisive role.
There are obvious biological differences between the sexes which contribute to the development of gender identity, i.e. the self-concept of a person as being male or female. But many societies have established social distinctions between the sexes which do not result from biological differences. The so called gender roles are defined as expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females. The application of traditional gender roles leads to many forms of differentiation between men and women. Men have traditionally been viewed as the providers for the family, while women have been expected to assume almost total responsibility for child care and household duties. In addition, our culture views many forms of work as «women’s work» or «men’s work». Both sexes are capable of learning to cook and to type, yet these tasks are usually performed by women. Both men and women are capable of learning to fly airplanes, but this function is generally assigned to males. When one looks at the political structure of contemporary countries, one has to look hard to find many women.
However in modern industrial societies there has been an evident change in the application of traditional gender roles to sexes.
Few social roles are completely restricted to either men or women. In terms of power dynamics, women clearly gain some additional degree of power by earning their own incomes. Women are increasingly participating in their nations’ paid labor force. But barriers still remain. Very few women occupy historically defined «men’s jobs» that carry great financial rewards. They do either inferior work or occupy inferior positions in the same work. Significantly fewer women than men hold senior management positions and most of women report to male chief executives. In short, women face many difficulties within the paid labor fore.
The social consequences of women’s employment are also serious. In theory at least, women should gain in self-esteem and power within the family as they move outside the home and function as productive wage earners and men would have more time and opportunity to become involved in the care and socialization of children. But in practice, as
women have taken on more and more hours of paid employment outside the home, they have been unable to get their husbands to take a greater role in home-making duties, including child care. Sociological studies have proved that in industrial societies the social role of being a father is greatly de-emphasized: the longest time period of father-baby interaction is 10 minutes 26 seconds, the average period being 38 seconds per day! In dual-career marriages very often wives have the longest total workweeks (often as many as 75 hours per week, including both paying jobs and household), while men have the shortest workweeks.
Thus, women’s growing participation in the paid labor is hardly bringing them greater freedom and power. As a result, more wives are moved to protest.
4. Stratification by age, based on age differentiation. Some of this age differentiation seems inevitable; it would make little sense to send young children off to war or to expect most older citizens to handle physically demanding tasks such as loading goods at shipyards.
Age, like race and gender, is an ascribed status. «Being old» is a master status that sometimes overshadows all others. Moreover, this status is generally viewed in negative terms. Sociological studies report widespread perceptions of older citizens as stubborn, touchy, quarrelsome, bossy and meddlesome. These studies also show that elderly persons receive less respect as they get older. Abuse and neglect of elderly members within the family have received increasing public attention in recent years. The competition in the labor force is not in the elderly’s favor either; very often younger adults view older workers as «job stealers». This belief does not only intensify age conflict but leads to age discrimination. And last but not least, the elderly are especially likely to be victims of age segregation. Many have to live in special nursing houses in which they are very often at a disadvantage and feel lonely and unhappy.
Thus, the subordinate status of the elderly is quite evident in all societies and the elderly fit all the properties of a minority group with one crucial difference: all of us will eventually assume the ascribed status of being an older person and an increasing proportion of any population is composed of elderly citizens.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
I. Read and translate the text using a dictionaryif necessary.
II. Find in the text English equivalents of the following:
имущество, иерархия, справедливая доля, вознаграждение, конфликтовать, причастность (вовлечение), классифицировать, разница в доходе, источники богатства, приблизительно, одинокий, испытывать недостаток, насчитывать, руководящая роль, конторские служащие, профессии служащих, рабочие должности, меньшинство — большинство, отделяться от, этнический, физические свойства, исключительность, предрассудок, превосходящий, стоящий ниже, врожденный, обделять кого-либо, сознательный (намеренный), уважение к, численно, соответствовать определению, подчиненный, социальные различия, являться результатом, так называемый, применение (использование), различие, забота о детях, домашние обязанности, ограничивать, с точки зрения, оплачиваемая рабочая сила, подчиняться руко- водителям-мужчинам, служба (занятость), приобрести самоуважение, снижаться; браки, в которых оба супруга работают; неизбежный, иметь мало смысла, затмевать, широко распространенный, упрямый, обидчивый, сварливый, командирский, надоедливый, пожилые, оскорбление, пренебрежение; последний по порядку, но не по значению; интернаты для престарелых, все возрастающая часть.
HI. Supplythe missing words and word combinations choosing among those given below:
1) All cultures are... by some degree of social inequality. 2) Of course, each of us wants... of society’s rewards. 3) Sociologists have... their attention to the implications of stratification in... members of society. 4) The upper class people form... associations with one another in... clubs and social.... 5) The lower class... both wealth and income and is too weak politically to... significant power. 6) The working class are people... regular manual or... jobs. 7) TTie racial group is a minority... from others by obvious physical differences. 8) Racial and ethnic groups can relate to one another in a wide variety of ways... from friendships and... to behaviors caused by.... 9) Many societies have... social... between the sexes. 10) Few social roles are completely... to... men... women. 11) The social... of women’s employment are very serious. 12) In modem industrial societies the social role of being a father is greatly.... 13) In... marriages wives have the longest workweeks, while men have the shortest.... 14) «Being old» is a... status that sometimes... all others. 15) And..., the elderly are especially... to be victims of age segregation.
last but not least; likely, master, overshadows, dual-career, total, workweeks, de-emphasized, consequences, restricted, either... or, established, distinctions, ranging, intermarriages, prejudice, set apart, holding, blue- collar, lack, exercise, intimate, exclusive, circles, directed, ranking, a «fair share», characterized.
IV. Studythe following word combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
to speculate about, to draw one’s attention to, to account for, to regard smth with respect, to exercise one’s will over, to come into conflict over, to argue over, to take a vacation, to direct one’s attention to, to workout a system, to exercise leadership roles, to hold a job, to be concerned with, to be set apart from, to be subject to, to range from... to..., to deny opportunities and equal rights to, respect for, to be superior to, to establish social distinctions, to result from, to assume a responsibility for, to be capable of doing smth, to be assigned to, to report to smb, to make little sense to do smth, to handle a task, to receive public attention; last but not least; to be at a disadvantage, to feel lonely and unhappy, to fit the properties (definition) of, to be composed of.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
I. Reread the text and answer the following questions:
1) What is social inequality usually based on? 2) Why is stratification one of the most important and complex subjects of sociological investigation? 3) What forms of stratification exist in all societies?
4) What is stratification by social class? 5) What is the difference between a racial group and an ethnic group? 6) Does a minority group always constitute a numerical minority? 7) Are there «pure races» in a biological sense? 8) How can different social groups relate to one another in a society? 9) What patterns of intergroup relations do you know? 10) What is stratification by gender based on? 11) How can you prove that ours is a men’s world? 12) What are the traditional male and female gender roles? 13) What shows that women gain some degree of power at present? 14) Do barriers still remain? 15) What are the social consequences of women’s employment? 16) What is stratification by age? 17) How can you prove the subordinate status of the elderly in all societies?
II. Speak on social inequality,stratification and its firms in brief and illustrate your reports withexamples and situations of your own.
III. Speak about the social inequalityand stratification in the Russian societycommenting on the following problems:
1) The roots of social inequality in our society. 2) Class distinctions and division in Russia. 3) Russian women — the oppressed majority.
4) The attitude to the elderly in our society.
IV. Describe your own experiences as a member of our society:
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