II. Reread the texts of unit six again and discuss the problem — questions given in the learning objectives in the introduction tothe unit.
III. Comment on the following quotations thinking like sociologists.
1) «The couple is a basic unit of society. It is the unit of reproduction, the wellspring of the family, and most often the precinct of love, romance, and sexuality» (Philip Blumstein and Pepper Schwartz «American Couples», 1983).
2) «Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the feelings of a heartless world.... It is the opiate of the people» (Karl Marx «Introduction to the Critique of the Hegelian Philosophy of Right», 1844).
Unit Seven. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS. THE ECONOMY
Looking Ahead
This unit continues considering the sociological analysis of social institutions. First, it studies politics, its sources and basic types of government in a political system. Special attention is given to political socialization and citizens’ participation in political life.The question «Who does rule in a society?» is posed and models of power structure are contrasted. Then, the unit examines the economic classification of societies and modem economic systems with particular emphasis on the rise of multinational corporations and their negative impact on the economic and political life of both industrialized and developing nations.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to answer the following questions:
1. How are systems of power and authority organized?
2. How does a democracy differ from a totalitarian state?
3. How do we acquire our political beliefs?
4. Who does rule in a society?
5. How do capitalism and socialism differ as ideal types?
6. What impact do multinational corporations have on the world’s industrialized and developing nations?
Text XIII. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
A political system is a cultural universal and a social institution formed in every society. Each society must have a political system because politics is deciding who gets what, when and how.
Power is at the heart of a political system, for it is defined as the ability to exercise one’s will ever others. Power relations can involve large organizations, small groups, or even people in an intimate association.
There are three basic sources of power within any political system — force, influence and authority. Force is the actual or threatened use of coercion to impose one’s will on others. When leaders imprison or even execute political dissidents, they are applying force; so, too, are terrorists when they seize an embassy or assassinate a political leader.
Influence, on the other hand, refers to the exercise of power through a process of persuasion. A citizen may change his or her political position because of the newspaper editorial, an expert testimony, or a stirring speech at a rally by a political activist.
The term authority refers to power that has been institutionalized and is recognized by the people over whom it is exercised. Sociologists commonly use this term in connection with those who hold legitimate power through elected or publicly acknowledged positions.
Each society establishes a political system by which it is governed. In modern industrial societies there are five basic types of government: monarchy, oligarchy, dictatorship, totalitarianism and democracy.
A monarchy is a form of government headed by a single member of a royal family, usually a king, or a queen. At present, monarchs hold true governmental power in only a few nations, such as Monaco. Most monarchs have little practical power and primarily serve ceremonial purposes.
An oligarchy is a form of government in which a few individuals rule. Today, it usually takes the form either of military rule, like in the developing nations of Africa, Asia and Latin America, or of a ruling group as is the case with the Communist Parties of some countries in Europe and Asia, the Soviet Union including.
A dictatorship is a government in which one person has nearly total power to make and enforce laws. Typically, dictators seize power by force and are usually bitterly hated by the population over whom they rule with an iron hand.
Frequently, dictatorships develop such overwhelming control over people’s lives that they are called totalitarian. Totalitarianism involves complete governmental control over all aspects of social and political life in a society. Both Nazi Germany under Hitler and the Soviet Union after the October Revolution are classified as totalitarian states.
Political scientists have identified six basic characteristics of a totalitarian state: 1) Large-scale use of ideology. 2) One-party system.
3) Control of weapons. 4) Terror. 5) Control of the media. 6) Control of the economy. Through such methods totalitarian governments have complete control over people’s destinies.
In a literal sense, democracy means government by the people. The word «democracy» is originated in two Greek roots — «demos», meaning «the common people», and «kratia», meaning «rule». Of course, it
would be impossible for all the people of a country to vote on every important issue that comes about. Consequently, democracies are generally maintained through a mode of participation known as representative democracy, in which certain individuals are selected to speak for the people.
Each society has its own ways of governing itself and making decisions, and each generation must be encouraged to accept a society’s basic political values and its particular methods of decision making. Political socialization is the process by which individuals acquire political attitudes and develop patterns of political behavior.
The principal institutions of political socialization are the family, schools, and the media. Many observers see the family as playing a particularly significant role in this process, as parents views have an important impact on their children’s outlook. The schools can be influential in political socialization, too, since they provide young people with information and analysis of the political world. All societies, even democracies, use educational institutions for this purpose and political education generally reflects the norms and values of the prevailing political order. Like the family and schools, the mass media can have obvious effects on people’s thinking and political behavior. Today, many speeches given by a nation’s leaders are designed not for immediate listeners, but for the larger television audience. Yet, a number of studies have reported that the media do not tend to influence the masses of people directly. Messages passed through the media first reach a small number of opinion leaders including teachers, religious authorities, and community activists, and later, these leaders «spread the word» to others over whom they have influence.
In theory, a representative democracy functions most effectively if the majority of its citizens gets involved in the political process. Unfortunately, this is hardly the case in our contemporary societies. Though the majority is familiar with the basics of the political life, but, only a small minority (often members of the higher social classes) actually participates in political organizations on a local or national level.
Sociologists note that people are more likely to participate actively in political life if they feel that they have the ability to influence politicians and the political order. In addition, citizens are willing to become involved if they trust political leaders or feel that an organized political party represents their interests. Without question, in an age marked by revelation of political corruption at the highest level, many members of all social groups feel powerless and distrustful. As a result, many view political participation, including voting at presidential elections, as a waste of time.
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When we speak about models of power structure, it is important to answer the following questions: Who really holds power in a society? Do «we the people» really run the country through elected representatives? Or is there a small elite of people that governs behind the scenes? It is difficult to determine the location of power in a society as complex as modern industrial ones. In exploring these critical questions, social scientists have developed two basic views of a nation’s power structure: the elite and the pluralist models.
The elite model is a view of society as ruled by a small group of individuals who share a common set of political and economic interests. Very often it is the power elite, if all power — industrial, military, governmental — rests in the hands of a few who control the fate of a state. Some sociologists do not fully accept this power elite model and suggest that, in this case, a society is run and controlled by a social upper class, that is a ruling class that exercises the dominant role in politics, economy and government. By contrast, the pluralist model is a view of society in which many conflicting groups within a community have access to governmental officials and compete with one another in an attempt to influence policy decisions.
Without question, the pluralist and elite models have little in common and each describes a dramatically different distribution of power. Yet, each model offers an accurate picture of the political life in contemporary society. Power in various areas rests in the hands of a small number of citizens (elite view), yet within contemporary society there are a great number of political institutions and agencies with differing ideas and interests (pluralist model). Thus, we may end this discussion with one common point of the elite and pluralist perspective — power in a contemporary political system is unequally distributed; all citizens may be equal in theory, yet those high in a nation’s power structure are «more equal».
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
I. Read and translate the text.using a dictionaryif necessary.
II. Find in the text English equivalents of the following:
осуществлять свою волю над кем-либо, принуждение, навязывать волю, заключить в тюрьму, совершить политическое убийство, убеждать (убеждения), передовица, показание (свидетельство), страстная речь, применять власть над кем-либо, обладать законной властью, руководить (управлять), править, как в слу
чае, создавать и проводить в жизнь законы, захватывать власть силой, часто, широкомасштабный, судьба (2), в буквальном смысле, голосовать, следовательно, выбирать, говорить от имени народа, приобретать политические взгляды, взгляды родителей, мировоззрение, преобладать (преобладающий), оказывать явное влияние на, мышление, теоретически, к сожалению, быть знакомым с основами, участвовать (участие), доверять, представлять интересы, несомненно, обнаруживать (признание, открытие), недоверчивый, президентские выборы, пустая трата времени, выборные, представители, за кулисами, исследовать критический вопрос, иметь общие интересы, иметь доступ к чему-либо, государственные чиновники, иметь мало общего, находиться в руках (власть).
III. Supplythe missing words and word combinations choosing among those given below.
1) Power is the ability to... one’s will over others. 2) Force is the actual or... use of coercion... one’s will on others. 3) Influence is the exercise of power through a process of... 4) Authority refers to those who hold... power through... or publicly... positions. 5) Each society... a political system by which it is.... 6) Most monarchs have little practical power and primarily... ceremonial purposes. 7) A dictator is a person who has nearly... power to make and... laws. 8) Frequently, dictatorships develop...control over people’s lives.9) One of the characteristics of a totalitarian state is... use of ideology. 10) Political socialization is the process by which individuals... political... and develop... of political behavior. 11) The family plays a particularly... role in political socialization. 12) Parents’... have an important... on children’s.... 13) Schools... young people with information and analysis of the political world. 14) Political education generally... the norms and values of the... political order. 15) The mass media can have... effects on people’s... and political behavior. 16) A number of studies have... that the media do not... to influence the masses of people.... 17) Unfortunately, this is... the case in our contemporary societies. 18) Citizens are...to participate in political life if they... political leaders or feel that they... their interests. 19) In an age... by revelation of political... people feel powerless and.... 20) As a result, many view political participation as....21)... the pluralist and elite models have little... and each describes a... different distribution of power. 22) Power in various areas... in the hands of a small number of citizens.
rests, without question, in common, dramatically, a waste of time, marked, corruption, distrustful, willing, trust, represent, hardly, reported, tend, directly, obvious, thinking, reflects, prevailing, provide, views, impact, outlook, significant, acquire, attitudes, patterns, large-scale, overwhelming, total, enforce, serve, establishes, governed, legitimate, elected, acknowledged, persuasion, threatened, to impose, exercise.
IV. Studythe following word combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
to exercise one’s will over smb, to impose one’s will on smb, to apply force, to assassinate a political leader, because of, in connection with, to hold legitimate power, to enforce laws, to seize power by force, to be bitterly hated by, to develop overwhelming (complete) control over, in a literal sense, to vote on an issue, to speak for the people, to acquire political attitudes, to provide smb with smth, to have an effect (an impact) on, to influence smb directly, to have influence over, in theory, to get involved in; to trust smb, to be willing to do smth, to be likely to do smth, to represent smb’s interests, to feel distrustful, to view smth as a waste of time, to run a country (to govern country), to govern smth behind the scenes, to share interests, power rests, to have access to, to compete with, to have little (much) in common with.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
I. Reread the text and answer the following questions.
1) Why is a political system a cultural universal? 2) How can you prove that power is at the heart of a political system? 3) What basic sources of power are there within any political system? 4) What differs «force» from «influence» as sources of power? 5) In what connection do sociologists commonly use the term «authority»? 6) What are the basic forms of government in contemporary industrial society? 7) What differs the monarchy from the oligarchy? 8) Why do dictatorships frequently develop into totalitarianism? 9) What are the basic characteristics of a totalitarian state? 10) What does «democracy» mean in a literal sense and in practice? 11) Through what process do members of a society acquire their political attitudes and develop patterns of political behavior? 12) How can you prove that the family, schools and the mediaare the principal institutions of political socialization?
13) How can you characterize the process of involving people in political activities in theory and in practice? 14) What models of power structure do you know? 15) Do they offer an accurate picture of the political life in contemporary society? Why so? 16) What is one common point of both models? Do you agree with this statement?
II. Define the following key terms and memorize the definitions:
political system, politics, power, force, influence, authority, monarchy, oligarchy, totalitarianism, democracy, representative democracy, political socialization, elite model, power elite model, ruling class, pluralist model.
ill. Speak on government and politics in brief and illustrate your reports withexamples and situations of your own.
IV. Discuss the following topics thinking like sociologists.
1) The former Soviet Union: a representative democracy or a totalitarian state? 2) The present organization of the Russian system of power and authority. 3) Political socialization and its agents in the Russian society. 4) The process through which you have acquired your political outlook. 5) The influence of the Russian mass media on the country’s political campaigns. Can Russians be considered active or apathetic in their political behavior? Why? 6) The distribution of power in the Russian political system: are there any citizens «more equal» in our country?
Text XIV. THE ECONOMY
The term economic system refers to the social institution through which goods and services are produced, distributed and consumed. Like the other social institutions, it shapes some aspects of the social order and is, in turn, influenced by them.
Sociologists have developed a classification of societies on the basis of their economic systems. The first category of society according to this classification is the preindustrial society. This type of society was composed of rather small settlements of people almost always related to one another. As a result, the family took on a particularly important role. The technology within this society remained rather limited as it mostly relied on the physical power of humans and animals. Members of this society were primarily engaged in the production of goods and later, of tools and household objects. But at the last stage of the preindustrial society a social surplus was created, i.e. the production by a group of people of enough goods to cover their own needs, while, at the same time, sustaining individuals who were not engaged in these tasks. As a result, the division of labor into specialized tasks was more extensive. The political institutions became more elaborate, and the concepts of property rights took on growing importance.
The industrial revolution, which took place largely in England during the period 1760 to 1830, was a scientific revolution that focused on the application of nonanimal sources of power to labor tasks. The process of industrialization produced significant changes and had distinctive consequences. Thus, the second type of society according to the economic classification introduced by sociologists is the industrial society, which, in general terms, can be defined as society that relies chiefly on mechanization for the production of its economic goods and services.
As for the contemporary industrial societies, there are two basic types of economic systems that exist: capitalism and socialism. Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production are largely in private hands and the main goal of economic activity is the accumulation of profits.
In practice, capitalist systems vary in the degree to which private ownership and economic activity are regulated by government. During the period immediately following the industrial revolution, the prevailing form of capitalism was what is termed a free enterprise system which allowed people to compete freely with minimal government intervention in the economy.
Two centuries later, capitalism has taken on a somewhat different form which is characterized by extensive government regulation of economic relations. Without restrictions, business firm can mislead consumers, endanger the safety of their workers, and even defraud the companies’ investors.
Contemporary capitalism also differs from the early capitalist stage in another important respect... monopolistic practices. In numerous industries, a few companies are monopolies because they dominate and control the field and exclude new enterprises from entering the marketplace.
Socialism is an economic system under which the means of production and distribution are collectively owned. The basic objective of this economic system is to meet people’s needs rather than to make profits. Socialists reject the idea of free competition and believe that basic economic decisions should be made by the central government, which acts as the representative of the people. Therefore, government ownership of all major industries is a major feature of socialism as an ideal type.
As described above, capitalism and socialism serve as ideal types of economic systems. No nation precisely fits either model. Instead, the economy of each industrial state represents a mixture of capitalism and socialism.
The significant changes in the contemporary industrial societies have led social scientists to call technically advanced nations postindustrial societies, i.e. societies whose economic systems are based on the production of information rather than goods. Large numbers of people become involved in occupations devoted to the teaching, generation, or spreading of ideas.
In a very real sense, the world is not as large as it once was: one can travel from New York to Tokyo, or reach someone a continent away much more quickly than has ever been possible. Therefore, a cultural item is spread from group to group or society to society. One result is that the world can now be conceived of as a single marketplace. But, while the common marketplace is gradually being organized, the profits of business are not equally shared. There remains a great disparity between the world’s «have» and «have not» nations. Two forces particularly responsible for this are colonialism and multinational corporations.
Colonialism is the maintenance of political, social, economic and cultural domination over a people by a foreign power for an extended period of time. By the 1980s colonialism had largely become a phenomenon of the past because most of the world’s peoples had achieved political independence and established their own governments. However, former colonies were unable to develop their own industry and technology and their economic dependence on more industrialized nations has continued. Such continuing dependence and foreign domination is known as neocolonialism.
A key role in the neocolonialism of the 1990s is played by multinational corporations, i.e. commercial organizations which, while headquartered in one country, own or control other corporations throughout the world. Though multinationals can have a positive impact on the developing nations of the world bringing jobs and industries, on the whole, their negative social impact on workers in both industrialized and developing nations is great. Social and political scientists have reported that moving factories out of countries such as the United States multinationals increase both unemployment in these countries and economic inequality and dependence within developing nations. In many respects, the rise of multinational corporations has become a threat to national sovereignty. At present, managers of Fiat, British Petroleum, and similar firms have more power than most sovereign governments to determine where people will live and what work (if any) they will perform.
By the year 2000 a few hundred corporations will account for more than half the value of goods and services produced in the entire world. Clearly, multinational corporations are reshaping the economic life and are transforming the societies in which they function.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
I. Read and translate the text using a dictionaryif necessary.
II. Find in the text English equivalents of the following:
производить (распределять, потреблять) товары (услуги), состоять из, поселение, оставаться ограниченным, полагаться на, заниматься чем-либо, предметы домашнего обихода, на последней стадии, создать прибыль (излишек), обеспечить свои потребности, поддерживать, разделение труда, право собственности, иметь специфические последствия, главным образом (2), что касается, средства производства, отличаться по степени, право на владение частной собственностью, свободно конкурировать, вмешательство правительства, ограничение, ввести потребителей в заблуждение, подвергать опасности, обманывать вкладчиков, находиться в коллективной собственности, цель (2), удовлетворить потребности, получить прибыль, государственная собственность, соответствоватьгодной из двух моделей, разрабатывать и распространять идеи, неравенство (несоответствие), длительный период времени, бывшие колонии, штаб (центр), безработица, во многих отношениях, угроза чему-либо.
III. Supplythe missing words and word combinations choosing among those given below.
1) Like the other social institutions, the economic system... some aspects of the social order and is... influenced by them. 2) Technology within the preindustrial society remains rather... as it mostly... on the physical power of humans and animals. 3) But at the last... of the preindustrial society a social surplus is.... 4) As a result, the division of labor into... tasks is more.... 5) The industrial revolution focused on the... of... sources of power to labor tasks. 6) The process of industrialization produced... changes and had... consequences. 7) The industrial society relies... on mechanization for the... of its economic goods and services. 8) In practice, capitalist systems... in the degree to which private... and economic activity are... by government. 9) The free enterprise system allows people... freely with minimal government... in the economy. 10) Without... business firms can... consumers,... the safety of their workers and even... the companies’ investors. 11) The basic objective of the socialist economic system is... rather than....
12) No nation... fits... model. 13) The world today can be... of as a single.... 14) Most former colonies... political independence and... their own governments. 15) Multinationals... in one country but... or... other corporations throughout the world. 16) By the year 2000 a few hundred corporations will... for more than half the value of goods and services produced in the... world.
account, entire, headquarter, own, control, achieved, established, conceived, marketplace, precisely, either, to meet people’s needs, to make profits, restrictions, mislead, endanger, defraud, to compete, intervention, vary, ownership, regulated, chiefly, production, significant, distinctive, application, nonanimal, specialized, extensive, stage, created, limited, relies, shupes, in turn.
IV. Studythe following word combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
in turn, according to, to be composed of, to be related to, to remain limited, to rely on, to be engaged in, to take on growing importance, to focus on, to produce significant changes, to have distinctive consequences, as for, in practice, to compete freely with, to mislead smb, to endanger smth, to defraud smb, to differ from... in, to exclude smb from doing smth, to be privately owned, to be collectively owned, to be government owned, to meet one’s needs, to reject an idea, to make profits, to be devoted to, to generate (to spread) ideas, to be (un)equally shared, to be responsible for, dependence on, independence of, to become a threat to, to account for.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
I. Reread the text and answer the following questions.
1) On the basis of what do sociologists classify societies? 2) What are the main features of the preindustrial society? 3) What is characteristic of the last stage of the preindustrial society? 4) What is the industrial society characterized by? 5) What are the main features of the capitalist economic system? 6) Can you distinguish between the forms of capitalism? 7) What differs socialism from capitalism? 8) How can you prove that no nation can fit either model? 9) What has led social scientists to introduce the term «postindustrial society»?
10) How can you prove that the modern world may be conceived of as a single marketplace? 11) Why aren’t the profits equally shared between the world’s nations? 12) What differs colonialism from neocolonialism?
13) How do multinational corporations reshape the economic life and transform the contemporary society?
II. Define the following key terms and memorize the definitions:
economic system, preindustrial society, social surplus, industrial revolution, industrial society, postindustrial society, capitalism, free
enterprise system, monopoly, socialism, colonialism, neocolonialism, multinational corporation.
III. Speak on the economyand its aspects in brief and illustrate your reports withexamples and situations of your own.
IV. Think like sociologists and compare the economic system of the former Soviet Union withthat of contemporaryRussia. Prove that the economyof Russia is a mixture of capitalism and socialism. Which system will prevail in future and whichone will benefit Russians more?
Revision Exercises on Unit Seven
I. Revise the active vocabulary and the definitions of the key terms of unit seven and translate the following intoEnglish.
1) Каждое общество должно иметь политическую систему, потому что государственная политика определяет, кто получает что, когда и как. 2) Когда властные структуры заключают в тюрьму или казнят политических диссидентов, они применяют силу.
3) Гражданин может изменить свою политическую позицию в результате прочтения передовой статьи в газете, свидетельства эксперта или вдохновенной речи политического активиста на массовом митинге. 4) Социологи обычно используют термин «власть, полномочия» по отношению к тому, кто обладает законной властью благодаря выборному или общественно признанному положению. 5) В настоящее время олигархия принимает форму либо военного правления, либо правящей группировки. 6) Каждое общество имеет свои собственные способы правления и принятия решений. 7) Многие наблюдатели рассматривают семью как особо значимый фактор в процессе политической социализации, так как взгляды родителей оказывают определяющее влияние на мировоззрение детей. 8) В буквальном смысле демократия означает «власть народа». 9) Хотя большинство граждан знакомо с основами политической жизни, но только небольшое меньшинство действительно принимает участие в политических организациях на местном и национальном уровне. 10) В настоящее время, когда выявлена политическая коррупция на самом высоком уровне, представители всех социальных групп не доверяют политическим лидерам и чувствуют свое бесправие. 11) Обе модели структуры власти имеют одну общую точку соприкосновения: власть в современном обществе распределяется неравномерно. 12) Экономическая система общества показывает, как товары и услуги про-
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