Contemporary sociologists have used the interaction approach to show that many of our daily activities involve attempts to convey impressions of who we are. We learn to create distinctive appearances and to satisfy particular audiences. People very often blunder in their daily activities but we tend to ignore their mistakes. Therefore, the sound of a stomach rumbling in a quiet room is almost always ignored. This polite behavior is intended to save face. And to maintain the proper image we often initiate face-saving behavior.
This sociological approach of the contemporary social scientists represents a logical progression of the sociological efforts begun by the sociologists of the past. The former stressed the process by which we come to view ourselves and how we learned to interact with others, the latter emphasize the ways in which we consciously create images of ourselves for others.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
I.. Read and translate the text using a dictionaryif necessary.
II. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following:
уникальный, правильный (соответствующий), происходить через взаимодействия людей, через наши собственные наблюдения, следовать нормам и ценностям общества (нарушать), воздействовать на, полный (общий), опыт (переживание), биологическая наследственность, наследие, окружение, почти полностью, следствие, наносить ущерб, познавательный потенциал, подчеркивать важность, сейчас признано, заботиться о физических потребностях ребенка, проявлять интерес к общественному развитию детей, не поощрять какое-либо действие, быть лишенным чего-либо, сверстники, взаимосвязь, воспитывать отдельно (2), генетический, быть удивительно похожим (сходным), заметное сходство, значительное различие, умственное развитие, значительно отличающийся, с одной стороны... с другой стороны, проявлять интерес к, в начале 1900-х, выдвигать утверждение, ощущать (осознавать), взрослеть, сотрудники, играть главную роль, создавать впечатление, создавать определенный вид (облик), удовлетворять аудиторию, делать промах, иметь склонность, не замечать ошибки, представлять логическое продолжение, делать акцент, подчеркивать (выделять), создавать образ, первый... последний, спасти (сохранить) репутацию (престиж).
III. Supplythe missing words or word combinations choosing among those given below.
1) Each culture has a... character which... the values and behavior of its members. 2) We learn... from the people most important in our lives. 3) Through interacting with people... through our own observations we discover how to behave properly. 4) We learn what to expect from others if we... or... society’s norms and values. 5) Socialization experiences can... on the shaping of people’s personalities. 6) There is no... regarding the relative importance of these factors in human development. 7) The consequences of social isolation have proved to be greatly.... 8) Children... in isolation very often react.... 9)... their physical and cognitive potential it is very difficult... them to human relationships. 10) Nowadays researchers are...emphasizing the importance of early socialization experience for humans. 11) It is not enough... children’s needs; parents must also... with their social development. 12) Children should not be... from having friends. 13) Inheritance should not be... as a factor in the social development of humans. 14) The... between heredity and environment is evident. 15) Two... identical persons develop quite different personalities. 16) Certain... appear to be... similar. 17) Identical twins brought up in... different social... score differently on.... 18) Many sociologists have... in how the individual develops and... a sense of self. 19) In... the sociologists... that we leam who we are by interacting with others. 20) Other sociologists... of the self. 21) The so-called... play a... role in shaping a person’s self. 22) People very often... in their daily activities. 23) This polite behavior is intended.... 24)... we often initiate....
to maintain the proper image, face-saving behavior, to save face, blunder, «significant others», major, introduced the theory, the early 1900s, advanced the belief, expressed an interest, modifies, dramatically, environments, intelligence tests, characteristics, strikingly, genetically, interplay, dismissed, discouraged, to care for, concern themselves, increasingly, despite, to adapt, raised, like wild animals, damaging, consensus, have an impact, follow, challenge, as well as, a great deal, unique, shapes.
IV. Studythe following word combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
appropriate to smb, to learn a great deal from, and so forth, to affect smb, to shape an image, to refer to, both... and, regarding smth, to be severely neglected, to be raised in isolation, to adapt smth to smth, to care for, to concern oneself with, to discourage smb from doing smth, to be deprived of, to be reared apart, to be brought up, to develop a personality, because of, to appear to be strikingly similar, far greater, to find marked similarities, to find significant differences, to have different scores on intelligence tests, to score quite differently on intelligence tests, on the one hand... on the other hand.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
I. Reread the text and answer the following questions.
1) Through what processes does socialization occur and shape people’s personalities? 2) In what way do we discover how to behave properly and what to expect from others? 3) What two factors play a role in human development? 4) What is a critical point in the «nature versus nurture» debate? 5) How can we contrast the impact of heredity and environment on human development? 6) Why are researchers increasingly emphasizing the importance of early socialization experiences for humans nowadays? 7) Why can’t we dismiss inheritance as a factor in the social development of humans? 8) What interesting research has been done to prove that both the biological and the sociological factors play a very important role in human development?
9) What sociological approaches to the self-identity do you know? Can you comment on each of them? 10) How can you prove that all these sociological approaches represent a logical progression?
II. Define the following key terms and memorize the definitions:
socialization, personality, inheritance (heredity), environment, self- identity.
III. Speak on socialization and self-identityin brief and illustrate your report withsituations and examples of your own.
IV. Comment on the studycases described in the text. Can you give anyother examples toprove that bothsocialization and inheritance play a veryimportant role in shaping personalityand self?
V. Describe the experiences of your childhood. Did your parents care only for your physical needs or did they concern themselves with your social development? Can you saythat you were not deprived of social interactions withyour peers? Did your parents always approve of your choice of mates?
VI. Imagine that you are asked tomake a speechon socialization and self-identityat a parents’ meeting in your former school. Outline the points you are going tospeak on at your report and develop the ideas in front of your group-mates.
Text VIII. SOCIALIZATION AND THE LIFE CYCLE, AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
Stages of Socialization. The socialization process continues throughout all stages of the human life cycle. But it is important to understand that we do not move from one stage to another in the clear-cut way that we are promoted from one school grade to another. Our social development varies with the individual and the social situations in which that person must function. Thus, in our shift from childhood to adulthood we go through a prolonged period of transition known as adolescence. After that a person will pass through a series of developmental stages.
The American psychologist Daniel Levinson in his book «The Seasons of a Man’s Life» identified three major transitional periods that occur primarily after adolescence. The first transitional period, the early adult transition, begins at about age 17 and extends to age 22. It marks the time at which a male gradually enters the adult world, perhaps moving out of the parental home, beginning a career, or entering a marriage. The second transitional period, the midlife transition, typically begins at about age 40. American men often experience a stressful period of self-evaluation commonly known as the midlife crisis, in which they realize that they have not achieved basic goals and ambitions and have little time left to do so. The final period of transition is the late adult transition which occurs between 60 and 65 years of age. At this time many Americans begin restricting their occupational duties and preparing for retirement. However, it is important to note that the nation’s attitude toward aging has undergone a dramatic change in recent decades. No longer is it widely accepted that old people should simply sit around passively, waiting to die. Instead, there has been an increase in programs to socialize the elderly for meaningful pursuits and continued living.
Levinson’s formulation was developed to describe the life cycle of men in the United States. While his conclusions are relevant for some women — especially those who follow the traditional career patterns of men — they do not necessarily reflect the typical life for women. A key aspect of his work is the notion that men have a dream of what the adult world is like — a vision that creates excitement and a sense of possibility. Yet, until recently, most women were socialized into visions of the future centering on marriage and children rather than achievements in paid labor force.
One stage of development identified by Levinson, the midlife crisis, is clearly evident in both sexes. Social scientists are only beginning to explore the nature of the midlife crisis. In one study they developed a scale ranking 43 stressful life events that may require important social adjustments and resocialization. The events ranking as most stressful include marriage, death of a spouse or a close family member, a divorce, serving a jail term, a personal injury or an illness, a dismissal from work, retirement, business readjustment. The events ranking least stressful include Christmas, vacation, a change in eating or sleeping habits, a change in social activities or recreation. The events ranking rather stressful are a change in the financial state, troubles with in-laws, a change in living conditions, pregnancy, the gain of a new family member, troubles with the boss.
Creating a self dots not occur in a week. It is a lifelong transformation which begins in the crib and continues as one prepares for death. The lifelong socialization involves many different social forces which influence our lives and alter our self-images.
The family is the institution most closely associated with the process of socialization and is its most important agent. We experience socialization first as babies and infants living in families; it is here that we develop an initial sense of self Most parents seek to help their children to be socialized into the norms and values of both the family and the larger society. Like the family, the school is a very important agent in socializing children into the norms and values of our culture. Schools foster competition through built-in systems of reward and punishment such as grades and evaluations by teachers.
As a child grows older, the family becomes somewhat less important in his or her social development. Instead, peer groups increasingly assume the role of «the significant others». Peer groups are friendship groups, youth gangs and special-interest clubs. Within the peer group young people associate with others who are approximately their own age and who often enjoy a similar social status. A peer group maintains a meaningful system of rewards and punishments. The group may encourage a teenager to follow pursuits that the society considers admirable. On the other hand, it can encourage someone to violate the society’s norms and values.
Peer groups play a very important role in the transition to adult responsibilities. At home parents tend to dominate; at school the teenager must contend with teachers and administrators. Bat within the peer group each member can assert himself or herself in a way that may not be possible elsewhere. Nevertheless, almost all adolescents in our culture remain economically dependent on their parents, and most are emotionally dependent as well.
In the last 75 years such technological innovations, as mass media — radio, motion pictures and television — have become important agents of socialization. Television, in particular, is a critical force in the socialization of children. It permits imitation and role playing but does not encourage more complex forms of learning. Watching television is a passive experience — one sits back and waits to be entertained. Critics of television are further alarmed by the fact that children (as well as adults) are exposed to a great deal of violence on television. But television is not always a negative socializing influence. Creative programs can assist children in developing basic skills essential for schooling. In addition, television programs and even commercials expose young people to lifestyles and cultures of which they are unaware. But still parents should not allow the TVset to become a child’s favorite play-mate and should monitor this aspect of a child’s environment just as carefully as they evaluate teachers, play-mates and baby-sitters.
A fundamental aspect of human socialization involves learning to behave appropriately within an occupation in a workplace. Scientists have divided occupational socialization into four phases. The first phase is career choice, which involves selection of academic or vocational training appropriate for the desired job. The next phase is anticipatory socialization which refers to the process of socialization whereby people get acquainted with norms, values, and behavior associated with a social position before actually assuming that status. For example, some children «inherit» their occupations from their parents. The third phase, conditioning, occurs while a person starts actually occupying his work- related role after adjusting himself or herself to the aspects of the job. And, if the job proves to be satisfactory, the person will enter the fourth stage of socialization which is called continues commitment At this point, the job becomes an indistinguishable part of the person’s self-identity.
Occupational socialization can be more intense immediately after one makes the transition from school to the job, but it continues through one’s work history. Technological advances may alter the requirements of the positions and necessitate some degree of resocialization, that is the process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one’s life. In addition, people change occupations, employers or workplaces during their adult years.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
I. Read and translate the text using a dictionaryif necessary.
II. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following:
четко определенным способом, переводить из класса в класс, переход от детства к зрелости, проходить длительный период, переход (изменение), отрочество, проходить рад стадий развития, выявить три главных переходных периода, происходить (иметь место), главным образом, отмечать, постепенно, начать карьеру, вступать в брак, в основном, переживать (испытывать) период стресса, самооценка, общеизвестно, достигать цели, честолюбие (стремление), преклонный, ограничивать свои служебные обязанности, уход на пенсию, стареть, подвергаться значительному изменению, за последние десятилетия, пожилые, приносящее пользу занятие, уместный (относящийся к делу), образец (модель), видение (предвидение), до недавних пор, четко (явно), очевидный, исследовать природу кризиса, шкала, классифицировать, приспособлять (регулировать), наиболее тесно связанный, первоначальный, поощрять соревнование, вознаграждение и наказание, оценки (отметки), возрастные группы, сверстники (ровесники), принимать (на себя), приблизительно, подросток (2), нарушать (закон), обязанности взрослого, бороться (оспаривать), отстаивать свои права, тем не менее, быть зависимым от, средства массовой информации, в частности, ролевая игра, быть встревоженным, подвергаться чему-либо, насилие, творческие программы; развить основные умения (навыки), необходимые для школы; кроме того, рекламный ролик, стиль жизни, не подозревать о чем-либо, осуществлять контроль, оценивать (давать оценку), вести себя соответствующим образом, занятие (должность), рабочее место, выбор, отбор, академическая подготовка, профессиональная подготовка, познакомиться, унаследовать, неразличимый, самосознание, технологические достижения, изменять требования, делать необходимым, отбрасывать (за ненадобностью), неизбежно.
III. Supplythe missing wolds and word combinations choosing among those given below.
1) The socialization process continues... all aspects of the human life.... 2) Our social development... with the individual and the social situations in which the person must.... 3) The first transition period... the time at which a male gradually enters the.... 4) The American nation’s attitude toward... has undergone a... change in.... 5) Levinson’s conclusions are... for women who follow the traditional... of men.
6) Yet,..., most women were socialized into the... of the future... on marriage and children. 7) Creating... does not... in a week. 8) The... socialization involves many... which influence.our lives, and... our self-images. 9) The family is the... most closely associated with....
10) We... socialization first as... and... living in families. 11) The school is a very important... in socializing children into... and... of our culture.
12) Schools foster competition through... systems of... and.... 13) With teenagers peer groups... the role of.... 14) At home parents... to dominate. 15) Television,..., is a critical force in the socialization of children. 16) Critics of television are... alarmed by the fact that we are exposed to... of violence. 17)... may alter the requirements of the position and... some degree of resocialization.
technological advances, necessitate, further, a great deal, in particular, tend, assume, «the significant others», built-in, reward, punishment, agent, the norms, the values, experience, babies, infants, institution, the process of socialization, lifelong, different social forces, alter, a self, occur, until recently, visions, centering, relevant, career patterns, aging, dramatic, recent decades, marks, adult world, varies, function, throughout, cycle.
IV. Studythe following word combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
to go through a prolonged period of transition, to pass through a series of developmental stages, to enter the adult world, to begin a
career, to experience a stressful period, to achieve basic goals and ambitions, to undergo a dramatic change, no longer is it, to follow a career pattern, to create excitement, until recently, to be clearly evident, to develop a scale ranking, to serve a jail term, to dismiss from work, troubles with in-laws, to develop an initial sense of self, to associate with, to be approximately one’s own age, to encourage, smb to do smth, to violate, to assert oneself, to be dependent on, to be alarmed by, to assist smb in doing smth, to expose smb to smth, to monitor smth, to evaluate smb, to involve doing smth, to prove to be satisfactory, during one’s adult years.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
I. Reread the text and answer the following questions.
1) How can you prove that the socialization process is a lifelong process but it does not develop in a clear-cut way? 2) What book (and by whom) identifies the three major transitional periods in the human life-cycle? Can you describe each stage? 3) Why was Levinson’s formulation developed to describe the life cycle of men? 4) What are the most important agents of socialization? 5) How can you prove that peer groups play a very important role in the transition to adult responsibilities? 6) What role do mass media play in the socialization of children? 7) Why is it stated that occupational socialization is a fundamental aspect of human development?
II. Define the following key forms and memorize the definitions:
adolescence, the midlife crisis, a peer group, occupational socialization, career choice, anticipatory socialization, conditioning, continuous commitment, resocialization.
III. Speak on socialization and the life cycle in brief and illustrate your reports withsituations and examples of your own.
IV. Describe the «seasons» of a woman’s life and speak about the role and place of a woman in contemporarysocietyin general and in Russia in particular.
V. Express your opinion.
Do you share the American nation’s attitude toward aging? Speak on the problem of the elderly in Russia and compare their social status with that of the American old people. What should we do to make our elderly people happy?
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VI. Speak about the midlife crisis. Goon withthe scale of stressful life events and rank them according tothe degree of stress and adjustment. Interview your parents and describe their experience thinking like sociologists.
VII. Speak about agents of socialization and describe your own experience.
VIII. Comment on the role of the mass media in Russia. Give examples of their negative and positive socializing influence thinking like sociologists.
IX. Speak on occupational socialization and its phases. Illustrate each phase describing your parents experience in this aspect.
Revision Exercises on Unit Four
I. Revise the active vocabulary and the definitions of the key terms of unit four and translate the following intoEnglish.
1) Каждая культура имеет уникальный характер, который формирует ценности и поведение ее членов. 2) Через взаимодействия с людьми, а также благодаря собственным наблюдениям мы осознаем, как вести себя правильно и чего ожидать от других. 3) Процесс становления личности влияет на всю культурную практику общества, а также создает представление о том, как мы ощущаем себя. 4) Все исследователи соглашаются, что как биологическая наследственность, так и процесс вхождения личности в общество играют важную роль в развитии личности. 5) Сейчас признано, что недостаточно заботиться о физических потребностях ребенка; родители должны проявлять интерес к общественному развитию своих детей. 6) Мы все имеем различные представления и убеждения о том, какие мы. 7) Существуют различные социологические подходы к понятиям «личность» и «самосознание». 8) Все эти подходы составляют логическую последовательность, либо подчеркивая процессы, с помощью которых мы начинаем осознавать себя и взаимодействовать с другими, либо вьщеляя способы, благодаря которым мы сознательно создаем образы себя для других. 9) В нашем движении от младенчества к зрелости мы проходим длительный период развития, включающий детство и отрочество. 10) В своей книге «Сезоны мужской жизни» психолог Даниэль Левинсон описал жизненный цикл мужчин в Соединенных Штатах. 11) Его выводы не подходят для описания жизненного цикла женщины, так как до недавнего времени будущее женщины ограничивалось вступлением в брак и воспитанием детей, а не достижениями в трудовой деятельности, приносящей доход. 12) Социологи стараются изучить природу кризиса, который часто наступает в середине жизни человека.
13) Они создали шкалу, включающую 43 жизненных события, которые вызывают стресс и требуют изменения социального положения личности в обществе. 14) Существуют различные социальные силы, которые влияют на нашу жизнь и изменяют наше представление о себе. 15) Одной из таких сил являются возрастные группы, так как внутри своей возрастной группы молодые люди общаются со своими сверстниками и обладают одинаковым социальным статусом. 16) Средства массовой информации (радио, кино и телевидение) играют большую роль в становлении личности. 17) Телевидение является пассивным способом приобретения жизненного опыта, и очень часто оно не поощряет использование сложных форм обучения. 18) Важными факторами вхождения личности в общество являются работа, рабочее место и взаимоотношения с сослуживцами. 19) Технологические достижения могут изменить требования, предъявляемые к работе, и вызвать изменения в социальном положении людей. 20) Кроме того, люди меняют свою работу, своих работодателей и рабочие места во время своей взрослой трудовой деятельности.
II. Reread the texts of unit four again and discuss the problem- questions given in the learning objectives in the introduction tothe unit.
III. Comment on the following quotation thinking like sociologists:
«Children have more need of models than of critics» (Joseph Joubert «Pensees», 1774).
Unit Five. SOCIAL INTERACTION AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE. SOCIAL CONTROL
Looking Ahead
This unit examines social interaction and the major aspects of social structure. It begins by considering how social interaction shapes the way we view the world around us. Then the unit focuses on the four basic elements of social structure: statuses, social roles, groups and institutions, and contrasts different sociological approaches to their study. Finally, the unit presents the relationship between conformity, obedience, deviance and social control and the mechanisms of the latter used by societies to establish the legal order. Particular attention is given to.crime and its various types as viewed from the sociological perspective.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to answer the following questions:
1. How do we redefine social reality through social interaction?
2. How do sociologists use the term «status»?
3. Why are social roles a significant component of social structure?
4. Why do we seek out social groups?
5. How do the social institutions contribute to a society’s survival?
6. How does society bring about acceptance of social norms?
7. How does obedience differ from conformity?
8. How do sociologists view the creation of laws?
9. Why is certain behavior evaluated as deviant while other behavior is not? Can we learn deviant behavior from others?
10. What types of crime do sociologists distinguish?
11. What are the distinctive features of crime in Russia?
Text IX. SOCIAL INTERACTION AND REALITY. ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Sociologists use the term social interaction to refer to the ways in which people act toward one another when they meet. Social structure refers to the way in which a society is organized into predictable relationships. These concepts are central to sociological study because they focus on how different aspects of human behavior are related to one another.
The distinctive characteristic of social interaction among people is that human beings interpret or «define» each other’s actions. In other words, our response to someone’s behavior is based on the meaning we attach to his or her actions. Reality is shaped by our perceptions, evaluations and definitions. The ability to define social reality plays a very important role in our socialization within a society because the definition of the situation molds the thinking and the personality of the individual.
But social reality is not fixed, it changes and people very often take a different view of everyday behavior. Thus people can reconstruct or redefine social reality and reshape it by negotiating changes in patterns of social interaction. The term negotiation refers to the attempt to reach agreement with others concerning some objective.
Negotiation occurs on many levels. Me may negotiate with others regarding time (When should we arrive?) or space (Can we have a meeting at your house?) or even maintaining places in a shopping line. In modem industrial societies negotiation can take much more elaborate forms. For example, the tax structure of a country can hardly be viewed as fixed; rather it reflects the sum of negotiations for change at any time. It is rather important to understand that negotiations are not merely an aspect of social interaction; they underline much of our social behavior because most elements of social structure are not static and are, therefore, subject to change through bargaining, compromising, exchanging.
We can add negotiation to our list of cultural universals (see Unit III) because all societies provide guidelines or norms in which negotiations take place.
The important role of negotiation in social interaction is apparent in examining the elements of social structure: statuses, social roles, groups and social institutions. These elements make up social structure just as a foundation, walls, ceilings and furnishings make up a building’s structure. We know that furnishings can vary widely from those of an office building to the elaborate furnishings of a palace. Similarly, the elements of the society’s social structure can vary dramatically.
Statuses. When we speak of a person’s «status» in casual conversation, the term usually conveys the meaning of influence, wealth, and fame. However, sociologists use status to refer to any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society — from the lowest to the highest position. Within a society, a person can occupy the status of president of a state, fruit picker, son or daughter, violinist, teenager, resident of a city, dental technician or neighbor. Clearly, a person holds more than one status simultaneously..For example, one can be an economist, an author, a sister, a resident of London, an Englishwoman at the same time.
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