Form nouns from the following verbs.

survey	connect	accomplish
vary	characterize	discriminate
limit	travel	digitize
refract	navigate	control
displace	detect	shoot
accelerate	reduce	attenuate
receive	record	convert

Fill in the gaps with correct prepositions.

1. Seismic sources are used ____ exploration and fall _____ one of the two principal categories.

2. Minimum offset is the distance _____ source ____ the nearest receiver.

3. Sample interval is the time interval _____ digital samples ___ the signal, which varies ____ less than 1 ms ____ 4 ms.

4. Geophones respond ____ either vertical or rotational motion.

5. The number ___ geophones ___ each position varies.

6. Taper of the array is the change ___ number of geophones ____ position ___ position.

Make up sentences.

1. the distance/ the nearest/ receiver/ from/ minimum/ offset/ to/ is/ the source.

2. distances/ short/ intervals/ are/ between/ holes.

3. the/ same/ multiple/ a/ from/ repeat/ reflection/ is/ interface.

4. multiple/ between/ intrabed/ bounces/ two/ reflectors.

5. two/ there/ seismic/ sources/ are/ kinds/ of.

6. vertical/ displacement/ geophones/ to/ rotational/ motion/ and/ respond.

7. acceleration/ displacement/ is/ derivative/ of.

8. to/ enhance/ multiple/ receivers/ the/ signal/ are/ used/ reduce/ noise/ and/ to.

Match the terms with their definitions.

1. normal movement	A. number of traces obtained for a common depth point
2. fold coverage	B. noise pattern that has low velocity that varies from 3500 to 5500 ft/sec
3. surface wave	C. a line single geophones
4. air wave	D. property of sampling systems in which an input signal of one frequency can yield the same values as a signal of another frequency
5. multiple	E. energy traveling from the source to the detectors through the air having a high-frequency component and low velocity of 1100 ft/sec
6. linear array	F. tapered array
7. weighted array	G. number of times a subsurface point is surveyed by different sources and detectors
8. aliasing	H. a repeat reflection from the same interface
9. digitizer	I. time correction applied to each trace account for its offset
10. fond	J. device that converts the analog signals from the geophones into discrete samples

Give definitions to the following terms.

P-wave aliasing

air wave CDP

Answer the following questions.

1. Which parameters of data acquisition are connected with distance?

2. Which parameters of data acquisition are connected with time?

3. What is normal movement?

4. What is velocity of surface wave?

5. Which of the waves has higher velocity: surface or air?

6. What three types of noise do you know?

7. What are the two kinds of multiples?

8. There are two types of seismic sources. What are they?

9. What are the functions of geophones?

10. What is the main function of multiple receivers?

11. What is the difference between linear and tapered array?

12. What is the main advantage of instrumentation?

13. What types of instrumentation do you know?

14. What is aliasing?

15. What is the difference between CDP and CMP?

16. What are the positive effects of reordering of the traces and summing them together?

17. What is end-on?

18. Which shooting configuration is called “pushing the cable” – the closest to the source or the farthest from it?

19. Which type of shooting is between pulling and pushing?

20. Which shooting technique allows to place depth points closer to the line termination?

Describe the diagram (Fig. 2) on page 187.

WORDLIST

ENGLISH	RUSSIAN
acceleration	ускорение
account for (v)	вычислить
acquisition	регистрация
acquisition project	проект регистрации данных
advancement	продвижение
air gun	пневмопушка
air wave	воздушная волна
alias (filter)	неоднозначность частотного состава колебания, восстанавливаемого по дискретным данным
aliasing	появление зеркальных частот
amplifer-filter-recorder	амплитуда-фильтр
application	применение, использование
array	расстановка (сейсмоприемников)
arrival	приход волны, начало сигнала на сейсмограмме
attenuate	ослаблять
be split (v)	быть разделенным
bounce (v)	отскакивать
boundary	граница
capability	мощность, производительность
capture (v)	записать, зафиксировать
coherent	связанный, сцепленный
common depth point	общая глубинная точка
compressional wave	волна сжатия
continuity	непрерывность
conversion	перевод
data set	набор данных
development	разработка
discrete	дискретный сигнал, обособленный элемент
discrimination	различение/ разрешающая способность
displacement	смещение
echolocation	эхолокация
end-on shooting	сейсморазведка групповым взрывом
enhanced oil-recovery	добыча нефти с искусственным поддержанием энергии пласта \ улучшенная нефтедобыча
engineering survey	инженерная съемка
enhance (v)	улучшать
environmental survey	съемка окружающей среды
explosive	взрывчатое вещество
exponentially	в геометрической прогрессии
field amplitude	амплитуда поля
field geometry	геометрия месторождения
fold coverage	охват кратности перекрытия
frequency	частота
frequency output	выходная частота
full-vector wave-field imaging	полновекторное изображение волнового поля
gain	Увеличение
gas chimney	газовая труба
gather	выборка записей (компоновка)
geophone	сейсмоприемник
geothermal energy	геотермальная энергия
ground-penetrating radar	проникающий в землю радар
gun array	расстановка пушек
impedance	импеданс. полное сопротивление
incidence	охват, сфера действия
input signal	входной сигнал
insensitive	нечувствительный
instrumentation	контрольно-измерительные приборы
intrabed	внутри
linear array	линейная расстановка
mapping	картирование
mean	средняя величина
measure (v)	измерять
medium, media	среда, -ы
multiple	многократная волна; кратное отражение
near-surface	зона малых скоростей
noise pattern	рисунок шумов
normal movement (NMO)	нормальное приращение (годографа отраженной волны)
offset	дистанция (расстояние от пункта взрыва до центра ближайшей группы сейсмоприемников)
plaque	зачумлять
plotting	нанесение на график, планирование
positioning	расстановка
primary reflection	однократно отраженная волна
processing data	обработка данных
production	добыча
pulling the cable	фланговая система с выносом
pushing the cable	фланговая система (односторонняя)
P-wave	продольная волна
random effect	случайный эффект
ray path	траектория луча
reduce uncertainties	сокращать неточности
reflection	отражение
reflection profile	профиль метода отраженных волн
reflection seismology	сейсморазведка методом отраженных волн
refraction	преломление
rotational motion	вращательное движение
sample	образец, проба
sample-and-hold aperture	отверстие \ апертура
section	сечение, срез
shallow	неглубокий
shallow reflector	отражатель верхней части разреза
shear wave	сдвиговая волна
shot hole	шпур, взрывная скважина
shot interval	взрывной интервал (расстояние между точками взрыва)
signal-to ratio	соотношение сигнал к чему-л.
sonar	сонар, гидролокатор
source array	группа источников
split spread	симметричная расстановка сейсмоприемников
spread correction	поправка на нормальное приращение времени
stacking	наложение, складирование
storage medium	носитель информации, запоминающая среда
straddle shooting	фланговая система (по центру)
surface wave=ground roll	поверхностная волна
survey configuration	форма съемки
taper	конус; труба с раструбом
termination line	конечная линия
timing	измерение времени
trace	трасса
tuned air gun array	ряд настроенных пневмопушек
variable	переменная величина
velocity	скорость
vibrator array	расстановка вибраторов / вибрационных сейсмических источников
weighted / tapered array	утяжеленная, конусообразная расстановка
3D-seismic technology	трехмерная сейсмическая технология

APPENDIX. Use the table to tell about the four major geophysical methods used in oil exploration.

SUMMARY OF THE FOUR MAJOR GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

Method	Field	Geologic Application	Action and Control
I. Gravitational	A. Torsion balance	Oil	Anticlinal structures; buried ridges; salt domes; faults; intrusions	Spontaneous Action No depth Control
B. Pendulum C. Gravimeter		Salt domes; buried ridges; major structural trends
II. Magnetic	Oil, mining	Anticlinal structures; buried ridges; intrusions; faults; iron ore, pyrhotite, and associated iron ores; gold placers
III. Electrical	A. Self-potential	Mining	Sulfide ore bodies
B. Galvanic application of primary energy	1. Potential distribution of secondary field measured	(a) Equipotential, potential profile (b) Resistivity (c) Potential-drop ratio	Mining, civil engineering, oil	General stratigraphic and structural conditions; bedrock depth on dam sites; ground water; oil structures; sulfide ore bodies; highway problems; electrical logging	Reaction to Energizing Fields Control of Depth Penetration
2. Electromagnetic field measured	Mining	Sulfide ore bodies
C. Inductive application of primary energy	Oil, mining	Faults; anticlinal, etc., structure; sulfide ore bodies
IV. Seismic	A. Refraction	Oil, civil engineering	Salt domes; anticlinal etc., structures; faults; foundation & highway problems
B. Reflection	Oil	Low-dip structures; buried ridges; faults

(C.A. Heiland. Geophysical Exploration. NY, 1940)

REFERENCES

1.	D.H. Griffiths, R.F. King Applied Geophysics for Geologists and Engineers. The Elements of Geophysical Prospecting. Oxford, 1981
2.	C.A. Heiland. Geophysical Exploration. New York, 1940
3.	Robert E. Sheriff's Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Applied Geophysics
4.	M. T. Sylvia, E.A. Robinson. Deconvolution of Geophysical Time Series in the Exploration for Oil and Natural Gas. Amsterdam-Oxford-New York, 1979
5.	В.С. Белоусов. Нефтегазовая промышленность. Основные процессы и англо-русская терминология. – Москва: OOO «Техинпут», 2006.

INTERNET RESOURCES

http://www.wikipedia.org/

http://www.nj.gov/dep/njgs/geophys/seis.htm

http://www.ig.utexas.edu/about/history/reflection.htm?PHPSESSID=def1b9

http://www.geomore.com/Oil%20and%20Gas%20Traps.htm

http://science.howstuffworks.com/missing-gravity.htm

http://www.brainyquote.com/words/gr/gravity170416.html

http://www.fourmilab.ch/gravitation/foobar/

http://www.geosurvey.co.nz/services.html

http://www.cflhd.gov/agm/geoApplications/SurfaceMethods/931SelfPotentialMethod.htm

http://www.fe.doe.gov/education/energylessons/oil/oil2.html

Chapter 2

OIL EXPLORATION

Т. F. Dolgaya

UNIT 1

Oil exploration

Oil exploration is the search by petroleum geologists for hydrocarbon deposits beneath the Earth's surface. Oil and gas explorations are grouped under the science of petroleum geology.

Lead - in

What is the name of the activity that deals with the search for hydrocarbon deposits?

What does most of this activity depend on?

LISTING – When you list, you write everything that comes to your mind. Write down as many words as you can on the topic “Oil Exploration”.

Terms and Vocabulary

oil seep	выход нефти
pockmark	оспина
hydrocarbon generation	образование углеводородов
deposit	месторождение
gravity survey	гравиметрическое исследование \ работа
magnetic survey	магнитная съёмка, магнитная разведка
scale features	особенности рельефа на карте
subsurface geology	подземная геология
seismic survey	сейсморазведка
reflected sound wave	отражённая звуковая волна
process of depth conversion	процесс глубинного преобразования
substructure profile	разрез (профиль) пласта
identify (v)	определять, идентифицировать
evaluate (v)	оценивать, рассчитать
determine (v)	измерять, определять
buoyancy	плавучесть
buoyant	лёгкий, плавучий, держащийся на поверхности
caprock	кепрок (вышезалегающая экранирующая порода)
seal (v) – sealed – a seal	придавать непроницаемость – изолированный – изолирующий слой
lead (n)	возможная ловушка углеводородов
matured hydrocarbons	зрелые углеводороды
source rock	нефтематеринская порода
expel (v)	вытеснять
prospect	поиск, разведка, изыскание, перспективный участок
chance of success	перспектива
hydrocarbons in place	углеводороды в пласте
recoverable hydrocarbons	промышленные запасы углеводородов
volumetric equation	уравнение объёма
saturation	насыщенность
shrink (v)	сжиматься
expand (v)	расширяться, увеличиваться в объёме
ratio	соотношение, коэффициент
GRV (gross rock volume)	суммарный объём породы
FVF (formation volume factor)	объёмный коэффициент пласта
burial	захоронение
reservoir	пласт-коллектор; пластовый резервуар (нефти, газа); нефтеносный слой; газоносный пласт; продуктивный пласт; залежь; месторождение (нефти, газа)
precursor	предшественник

Pay attention to the pronunciation the following words. Pay special attention to the letters in bold.

s ur veyprof i le i dentif y b uoy ancy pro c ess substruc ture s our ce h y drocarbons feat ure eq ua tion ra tio de ter mine

2. Read the text “Exploration methods” and do the exercises.

Exploration Methods

Visible surface features such as oil seeps, natural gas seeps, pockmarks (underwater craters caused by escaping gas) provide basic evidence of hydrocarbon generation (be it shallow or deep in the Earth). However, most exploration depends on highly sophisticated technology to detect and determine the extent of these deposits.

Areas thought to contain hydrocarbons are initially subjected to a gravity survey or magnetic survey to detect large scale features of the subsurface geology. Features of interest (known as leads) are subjected to more detailed seismic surveys which work on the principle of the time it takes for reflected sound waves to travel through matter (rock) of varying densities and using the process of depth conversion to create a profile of the substructure. Finally, when a prospect has been identified and evaluated and passes the oil company's selection criteria, an exploration well is drilled in an attempt to conclusively determine the presence or absence of oil or gas.

Oil exploration is an expensive, high-risk operation. Offshore and remote area exploration is generally only undertaken by very large corporations or national governments. Typical Shallow shelf oil wells (e.g. North sea) cost $10 - 30 Million, while deep water wells can cost up to $100 Million plus. Hundreds of smaller companies search for onshore hydrocarbon deposits worldwide, with some wells costing as little as $500,000 USD.

Elements of a petroleum prospect

A prospect is a potential trap which geologists believe may contain hydrocarbons. Five elements have to be present for a prospect to work and if any of them fail, neither oil nor gas will be present.

• A source rock. When organic-rich rock such as oil shale or coal is subjected to high pressure and temperature over an extended period of time, hydrocarbons form.
• Migration. The Hydrocarbons are expelled from source rock by three density-related mechanisms: the newly- matured hydrocarbons are less dense than their precursors, which cause overpressure; the hydrocarbons are lighter medium, and so migrate upwards due to buoyancy, and the fluids expand as further burial causes increased heating. Most hydrocarbons migrate to the surface as oil seeps, but some will get trapped.
• Trap. The hydrocarbons are buoyant and have to be trapped within a structural (e.g. anticline, fault block) or stratigraphic trap.
• Seal or cap Rock, The hydrocarbon trap has to be covered by an impermeable rock known as a seal or cap-rock in order to prevent hydrocarbons escaping to the surface.
• Reservoir. The hydrocarbons are contained in a reservoir rock. This is a porous sandstone or limestone. The oil collects in the pores within the rock. The reservoir must also be permeable so that the hydrocarbons will flow to surface during production.

Terms used in petroleum evaluation

• Lead - a structure which may contain hydrocarbons.
• Prospect - a lead which has been fully evaluated and is ready to drill.
• Chance of Success - an estimate of the chance of all the elements (see above) within a prospect working, described as a probability. High risk prospects have a less than 10% chance of working, medium risk prospects 10-20%, low risk prospects over 20%. Typically about 40% of wells recently drilled find commercial hydrocarbons.
• Hydrocarbons in Place - amount of hydrocarbons likely to be contained in the prospect. This is calculated using the volumetric equation - GRV x N/G x Porosity x Sh x FVF:
• GRV - gross rock volume - amount of rock in the trap above the hydrocarbon water contact;
• N/G - net/gross ratio - percentage of the GRV formed by the reservoir rock (range is 0 to 1);
• Porosity - percentage of the net reservoir rock occupied by pores (typically 5 - 35%);
• Sh - hydrocarbon saturation - some of the pore space is filled with water - this must be discounted;
• FVF - formation volume factor - oil shrinks and gas expands when brought to the surface. The FVF converts volumes at reservoir conditions (high pressure and high temperature) to storage and sale conditions.
• Recoverable hydrocarbons - amount of hydrocarbons likely to be recovered during production. This is typically 10-50% in an oil field and 50-80% in a gas field.

(http://www.wikipedia.org)

Give definitions to the following terms. Learn them.

seep, mature oil, prospect, recoverable oil, lead, migration,

source rock, trap, hydrocarbons in place, seal, reservoir

Find English equivalents to the following Russian sentences.

1. Природные проявления нефти и газа указывают на образование углеводородов.

2. Сложная технология помогает обнаружить нефтяные и газовые месторождения и их протяжённость.

3. Первоначально районы возможного содержания углеводородов подвергаются гравиразведке и магнитной разведке.

4. Возможные ловушки подвергаются сейсморазведке, которая создаёт профиль подземной структуры.

5. Разведка нефти и газа – процесс, связанный с большим риском.

6. Чтобы перспективная площадь была результативной, нужны следующие характеристики: материнская порода, миграция, ловушка, покрышка, коллектор.

7. Скважины, имеющие промышленное значение, составляют 40% от всех недавно пробуренных скважин.

Answer the following questions.

1. What is the name of the activity that deals with the search for hydrocarbon deposits?

2. What is “petroleum geology’’?

3. Are there visible features that provide evidence of hydrocarbon generation?

4. Why do we need highly sophisticated technology in oil and gas exploration?

5. What exploration methods can you name?

6. Is the seismic survey different from the other two?

7. When is oil exploration well drilled? What for?

8. Can you prove that oil exploration is a high–risk operation?

9. What do smaller companies search for?

10. When does a prospect work?

11. What elements should be present for the prospect to work?

12. When are hydrocarbons formed?

13. Why are hydrocarbons expelled from the source rock?

14. Could you name 3 density related mechanisms?

15. Why do hydrocarbons migrate upwards?

16. Are all hydrocarbons get trapped?

17. Where are they trapped?

18. Why do hydrocarbons staying in traps?

19. Characterize a reservoir rock.

20. What becomes of oil and gas when they are brought to the surface?

Terms and Vocabulary

entrapment	улавливание, захват
interpret	расшифровывать
gravity meter	гравиметр
magnetometer	магнитометр
core samples	образцы керна
sniffer	газоанализатор
seismology	сейсмология
reflect back	отражать
density	плотность
hydrophone	гидрофон
seismometer	сейсмограф
obtain (v)	добывать; приобретать
terrain	местность; территория, район
measure (v)	измерять, мерить; отмерять, отсчитывать
indicate (v)	показывать, указывать
detect (v)	замечать, открывать; обнаруживать

Pronounce the following terms. Pay attention to the letters in bold.

int er pret magnetom e ter s ei smology h y drophone s ei smometer

7. Scan the text “Finding Oil” and answer the after-text questions.

Finding Oil

The task of finding oil is assigned to geologists, whether employed directly by an oil company or under a contract from a private firm. Their task is to find the right conditions for an oil trap – the right source rock, reservoir rock and entrapment. Many years ago, geologists interpreted surface features, surface rock and soil types, and, perhaps some small core samples obtained by shallow drilling. Modern oil geologists also examine surface rocks and terrain, with the additional help of satellite images.

However, they also use a variety of methods to find oil. They can use sensitive gravity meters to measure tiny changes in the Earth’s gravitational field that could indicate flowing oil, as well as sensitive magnetometers to measure tiny changes in the Earth’s magnetic field caused by flowing oil. They can detect the smell of hydrocarbons using sensitive electronic noses called sniffers. Finally, and most commonly, they use seismology, creating shock waves that pass through hidden rock layers and interpreting the waves that are reflected back to the surface.

The shock waves travel beneath the surface of the Earth and are reflected back by the various rock layers. The reflections travel at different speeds depending upon the type or density of rock layers through which they must pass. The reflections of the shock waves are detected by sensitive microphones or vibration detectors – hydrophones over water, seismometers over land. The readings are interpreted by seismologists for signs of oil and gas traps.

(David Lambert “The Field Guide to Geology”, Cambridge University Press, 1998)

Find the answers to the following questions.

1. What specialists usually find oil?

2. What is their task?

3. What did shallow drilling help the specialists to do?

4. How do modern specialists examine surface rocks?

5. Are there new methods to find oil?

6. What do geologists use them for?

7. What does seismology deal with?

8. What is the aim of shock waves?

9. Do reflections travel at different speeds?

10. What are reflections detected by?

11. Are readings important?

Terms and Vocabulary

drill (v)	бурить
rock sample	образец породы
core	керн
survey (v)	производить съёмку или изыскание
property	свойство, характеристика
seismic survey	сейсморазведка
thickness	мощность
environment	окружающая среда
drill bit	буровая коронка, долото
string of pipes	колонна труб
lubricate (v)	смазывать
mud	буровой раствор
gusher	фонтанирующая скважина
Christmas tree	фонтанная арматура (ёлка)
well head	устье скважины
S-wave	поперечная волна
wildcat well	скважина, заложенная без предварительного геолого-геофизического обоснования
cut down (v)	сокращать, урезать
encounter (v)	наталкиваться; столкнуться
suspended from (v)	висящий, подвешенный

Pay attention to the pronunciation of the following words.

lubricate search surface structure microscope chemical geophysicist survey environment fluid

10. Read the text “How to Find Oil” and do the exercises.

How to Find Oil

Photographs from aircraft and satellites are used to begin the onshore search for oil and gas which is underground. This cuts down the time spent searching on the surface. The photographs are studied very carefully for the structures where oil might be found. If an area shows promise, then teams are sent to find out more about the rocks.

Geologists and geophysicists work closely together using a variety of methods. All the information is carefully considered, with the help of computer analysis, before any decisions to drill are made. A geologist collects small samples of rock. Sometimes the samples of rock are dug out by hand or cylindrical cores are drilled to give samples which can be cut and studied under a microscope. These help them to find out where the rocks have come from, what they are made of and how the rocks are arranged in strata.

Geologists also find out about the physical and chemical properties of the rocks and the fossil record from ancient times. All these clues give information to build up a picture of the area being surveyed. A geophysicist adds to the information of a geologist by studying the physics of the Earth. Surveys are made of the magnetic field, the gravity and how waves travel through the layers.

Magnetometers measure very small changes in the strength of the Earth's magnetic field. Sedimentary rocks are nearly non-magnetic and igneous rocks have a stronger magnetic effect. Because of these different effects on the magnetic field, measurements can be made to work out the thickness of the sedimentary layers which may contain oil.

Gravitometers measure the strength of the Earth's gravitational pull. This is not the same all over the Earth because of the different densities of the rocks. Igneous rocks like granite are denser than sedimentary rocks. Granite near the surface will have a stronger pull than the same lump deeper down, so measurements help to build up more information about the layers of rock.

Shock waves or seismic waves are used to help give a picture of deep rock structures. The idea is to make artificial shock waves and record how they travel through the Earth. The shock wave travels through the water and strikes the sea bed. Some of the energy of the wave is reflected back to the hydrophones. The rest of the wave carries on until it reaches another rock layer.

The time taken for the waves to travel from the source to the hydrophones is used to calculate the distance traveled - hence the thickness of the rock layers. The amplitude of the wave gives information about the density of the reflecting rock. A survey using artificial shock waves is called a seismic survey. The data from a survey is recorded and displayed by computer as a pattern of lines, called a seismograph.

Sometimes, surveys show that a structure is present which may contain oil and gas. If so, an exploratory well or wildcat well is drilled. Very few exploration wells find oil. Even in areas like the North Sea, where we know a great deal about the geology, only one in every eight wells which are drilled will find oil or gas in quantities worth developing.

Drilling is a very expensive activity, with each well on average costing several million dollars. Even with today's technology, there is still a low probability that oil or gas will be found. Most oil wells are between 900 and 5,000 metres deep, but it is now possible to drill 8 km below the surface, an achievement made possible by skilled operators using powerful equipment and advanced technology. However, the costs of drilling can double or treble when in very deep water, hostile environments and when high pressure or temperature is encountered.

The rock is drilled with a rotating drill bit, similar to those that are used to drill a hole in wood. The drill bit is attached to a string of steel pipes, each approximately 9 metres long. The derrick, the structure that stands above the hole, must be strong, as the drill pipe and bit are suspended from it. Only a small proportion of the total weight of the drilling string is allowed to bear on the drill bit. This proportion will vary depending on the rock formation being drilled. The derrick must also be tall enough to enable the individual lengths of drill pipe to be added to or removed from the string.

The drilling process is lubricate d and cooled by a carefully constituted mud. This passes down inside the pipes to the drill bit and then returns to the top of the hole between the pipe and the sides of the hole, bearing rock debris with it. This provides the geologists with rock samples to indicate the kind of rock the drill is passing through.

The weight of the mud also prevents the escape of oil or gas if it is found. Usually the gas or oil is under pressure in the ground. To stop wasteful and dangerous gushers, a set of valves called a Christmas tree is fitted to the well head to control the flow of fluids from the well.

(Material is supplied by the Institute of Petroleum)

Form adjectives and nouns from the following verbs.

search lubricate measure drill flow waste trap migrate explore saturate

Give the Russian equivalent to the following terms.

onshore search	to give a picture of deep rock structures
show promise	the time taken for the waves to travel
teams	to calculate the distance traveled
fossil record	the reflecting rock
the rocks are arranged in strata	oil and gas in quantities worth developing
the area being surveyed	a low probability
to work out the thickness	advanced technology
gravitational pull	hostile environments
to build up more information	rock formation being drilled

Give the English equivalent to the Russian term.

Аэрофотосъёмка и съёмка со спутников; возможное залегание нефти; перспективная территория; работать в тесном взаимодействии; решение о бурении скважины; небольшие образцы горных пород; состав пород; ранние геологические эпохи; нефтенасыщенные осадочные породы; толщина пластов горных пород; совокупность линий; поисковая или поисково – разведочная скважина; количества, достаточные для промышленной разработки; современные методы исследования; глубокое подводное бурение; неблагоприятная среда; система стальных труб; буровая вышка; буровая колонна и долото; буровой раствор; затрубное пространство; обломки; предотвратить утечку нефти; фонтанирование скважин; фонтанная арматура; устье скважины.

14. Answer the following questions and give more \ extra information.

1. What equipment is used in searching onshore oil and gas?

2. What methods are used to search for oil and gas?

3. Do specialists work closely together?

4. What is a seismic survey?

5. Do surveys show any necessary data?

6. Can you prove that drilling is a very expensive activity?

7. Could you name drilling equipment?

8. How can you stop wasteful and dangerous gushers?

9. What is a carefully constituted mud for?

10. Why must the derrick be strong enough?

Terms and Vocabulary

readings	данные, показания
exploration	детальная разведка
relay the dat	передавать данные
weight	грузик
variations	колебания
battery of tests	серия тестов
survey	исследования
drill sample cores	бурить для получения кернов
yield	давать; выдавать; производить
country rock	вмещающая порода
topsoil	верхний слой почвы
background	фоновое
track down	разыскивать; исследовать до конца
gangue mineral	минеральная примесь
counter	счётчик излучения
underlying rock	подстилающая порода
bounce (v)	отскакивать

15. Read the text “Geological Prospecting” and do the exercises.

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