1. Типологія частин мови. Граматичне значення / граматична категорія частин мови.

1. Типологія частин мови. Граматичне значення / граматична категорія частин мови.

Parts of speech- the lexico-grammatical classes of words correlating with each-other in general system of language on the basis of their grammatically relevant properties.

Criteria of classification: - formal/functional/semantic properties. Semantic - refers to the generalized semantic properties common to the whole class of words: nouns-thingness, verbs- process, adj.- substansive property, adv.-non-substansive property. Formal- formal features- word-building, word-changing, that are characteristic for a particular part of speech. N.-by a specific set of word-building affixes(property, bitterness, worker); is changed according to category of number, case & article determination(boy-boys, the boy- a boy). Functional- based on the function that the word of a particular class fulfill in the sentence: N-subj, obj., V-predic. Etc.

Eng. As well as Ukr. Words have been traditionally classified into 9 categories/parts of speech: Noun, Pronoun, Adj., Verb, Adv., Numeral, Prepos.,Conjunc., Interjection(exclam.)+ in Eng. -article, in Ukr- частка.

Classification in contrastive languages is based on the isomorphic (equal for both), lexical, morphological & syntactic properties. But the points of view of different scolars are not similar on this problem. Though, subdivision into Notional&functional seems indisputable. 1. Classical( logical-interflectional)- based on latin Grammar; 2. Functional -Ch.Fries- 1 class-words with function of a Subject, 2 cl.-predicate, 3cl.-adj., 4 cl.- adverbial func.words/groups. 3. C.T.Hockett more relevant classif.- class N words, cl.V words, cl.ADJ. words >»they can show more than 1 pattern of usage» due to their morphological structure. + he singled out doublets & triplets (NA, AV, NAV (fat meat). 4. R.Quirk, S.Greenbaum, G.Leech, J.Svartik: 4 notionals(N, V, ADJ, ADV,+ a set of parts of speech with closed system-articles, propos, conj, interj, pron, demonstratives). 5. Isomorphic classif.: Eng.&Ukr.- notionals & functionals.

All words in Eng.& Ukr. Have lexical( logical, positioning the object according to the world) & grammatical meaning- a very abstract generalized meaning which is linguistically expressed(The girl lost her/his hat). With the help of gram.cat. - a system of expressing generalized gr.meaning by mens of paradigmatic correlation of gram.forms.

7. Речення, як основна комунікативна одиниці мови.

Sentence- the central syntactic construction used as the minimal communicative unit that has its primary predication, actualizes a definite structural sceme and posesses definite intonation characteristics.

Sentence vs Utterance: s.-abstract theoretical entity, defined within the theory of grammar Unit of language. U.- the actual use of the sentence, unit of speech. Characteristics(features): structural- subject-predicate relations(primary predication); semantic- refers to some fact in the objective world. Classification: 1)simple(1 independent clause); 2)compound(2 or more ind.cl.); 3)complex(at least 1 ind + 1 depend.); 4)compex-comp.(multiple indep.clauses, at least 1 of which has at least q depend.cl.). Purpose: 1)declarative; 2)interrogative(?); 3)exclamative; 4)imperative.

+ add about utterance- unit of speech, opposed to sentence (theme- already known; rheme-new).

2. Граматичний спосіб вираження граматичних категорій частин мови в мовах, які порівнюються.(means of realization of grammatical categories)

Grammatical category - (number, gender, aspect, case) the most general notion that comprises a number of identical gram.meanings being expressed in a definite grammatical meaning and its form.! any Gram.category must be represented by at least 2 gram.forms(number-sing., plur.).

The relation between 2 forms differing in meaning & external signs is called opposition. (book-book s, marked- un marked). All Gram.categories find their realization through opposition. Types of opposition(on th basis of various combinations of common & differential features): 1. Binary privative: binary-consists of 2 members or forms; privative- members of opposition are characterised by the presense/absense of a certain differential feature which serves as the formal mark of one of its members: cat-cat s -formal mark. 2. Gradual opp.: formed by series of members which are distinguished not by the presence or absence of a differential feature, but by the degree of it. In Eng. Can onky be identified in the place of content in the category of comparison: big-bigger-the biggest. 3. Equippolent opp.: in Eng. can be identified in the plane of expression in the paradigms of suppletive forms, for example, in the correlation of the person & number forms of the verb be: am-are-is. Eq.op. are formed by members, which are distinguished by a member of their own features.

Means of realization(of Gram.cat.): synthetic (near- nearer), analytic (beautiful- more beautiful). Due to dialectal unity of lanuage & throughout grammatical categories correlate on the one hand with conceptual categiries & on the other hand with objective reality. It may be shown with the help of a triangle model: 1.Conceptual reality; 2. Conceptual category; 3. Objective reality; 4. Lingual reality; 5. Objective ategiry; 6. Grammatical category.

It follows that w may define G.cat. as references of the corresponding objective categories. (ex.: the objective cat. Of time is represented in the grammar cat. Of tense; quantity - in number). Those G.cat. that have references in the objective reality are referential. Those which don't correspond to anything in the obj.real., but do correspond with conceptual matters (1.Conceptual correlate; 2. Lingual correlate.)are called significational (mood, degree). Speaking about the G.cat. of mood we can say that it has modality as its conceptual correlate. It can be explained by the fact that it does not refer to anything in the objective reality- it expresses the speaker's attitude to what he says.

3. Морфологічні категорії іменника (число, рід, визначеність / невизначеність).

Noun- central lexical unit of language, main nominative unit of speech, categorial meaning- substance, thingness.

Eng-analytic, Ukr-syntactic.

Ukr cat- number(sg, plur, dual); gender(masc, fem, neutr.); case(7); declension. Eng.cat- number(sg, plur), no gender(but actor-actress), case(2- common& genitive/posessive), definitness/indefinitness.

Number- only one isomorphic cat. For Eng & Ukr. In both lang-s mostly realized synthetically (endings, sound interch., doubleness) through []+inflection(child-children, cat-cats, стакан-стакани, ліс-ліси). In Eng.endings for number are: –s, -es, -(r)en. In Ukr.- determined by 4 declensions, case and gender. 2-nd way of realization of plurality (Eng) is due to so-called pure mutation – foot—feet, man-men, tooth-teeth, mouse-mice, goose-geese.In Ukr – plurality of some nouns can be observed in the combined way (mutation+inflexion) – ніс-носи, стіл-столи.Eng.- irreg. way of formation of plural forms in compounds – commander s -in-chief, forgetmenot s, phenome non -phenomen a, dat um -dat a.

In English some nouns don’t change their forms in plural – sheep, deer. Ukr – some groups of nouns of the foreign origin only in sing –какаду, таксі, леді, колібрі.

In Eng & Ukr there are 2 bi groups o nouns – only in the singular or in plur.

Plural:Expr. summations – gloves, scissors, trousers. Geographical names – Athens, the Netherlands. Some remnants – leavings, remains, висівки. Singular: Parts of the world (Схід, Захід). Materials (gold, silver). Collective nouns (rubbish, листя, білизна). Abstract nouns (love, progress). Some nouns have plural meaning in Eng & singular in Ukr & vice versa:

arms(pl.) – зброя(sing.); creem(sing) – вершки(pl.); money(sing.)— гроші(pl.); In Ukr l-ge there exists dual Number (двоїна). The nouns express the dual number in connection with numeral adjunct (приложение) to 3&4. The number is mostly indicated by stress which differs, as a rule, from that of the plural form. Sg –берег, слово – dual 2 б е реги, 4 сл о ва; pl – берег и, слов а. But there are some nouns in which 2 forms of dual & plural coinsides (співвідносяться). Танець (sg) – танці (pl) – танці (dual), Сповідь (sg.) – сповіді (pl.) – сповіді (dual).

There is no category of gender in English, in the way it exists in Ukr. Blokh: The category of gender is expressed in English by the obligatory correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the 3rd person. It’s strictly oppositional, firmed by 2 oppositions hierarchically related.1.Personal noun (strong).2.Non-person (weak). In Ukr there are fem, masq. & neutral gender, realized morphologically in every Functional part of speech- usually with the help of endings which depend on the case, declension and number category.

The category of definiteness & indefiniteness. Definiteness may be expressed semantically (Ukr.) or grammatically (Eng.) through: demonstrative & possessive pronoun (I know this / that student); in Eng. – definite article “the” (The “Ukraine” hotel – готель „Україна”). Indefiniteness: indefinite pronouns (one, some); indefinite article (in Eng. only); in Ukr. – through the inverted word-order.

9. Прагматичні типи речень (за Г.Г. Почепцовим).

Pragmatic approach to the investigation of the so called human factor of the lang. led to the including of the pragmatic aspects in the linguistic studies. The word “pragmatic” originated to “pragmatos”(Greek) means “matter action”. The pragmatic studies of the linguistic units deal with the communicational functional side & reflect the communicative purpose of the lang. unit (the min. speech unit is utterance).

In the traditional linguistic sentence is: declarative, interrogative, imperative (inducive) correlated with communicated purpose. Pragmatic approach difference types of utterances gentenas are correlated with the speaker’s communicative intentions which are reflected through the so called illocutionary function.(Austin: the locutionary act is what is directly achieved by the conventional force associated with the issueance of a certain kind of utterance in accord with a conventional procedure. The illocutionary act enables the saying of something to convey more than is said literally. We distinguish of Pocheptsop’s conceptions such structures: 1. Constantive (констатив) – statements, descriptions; 2.Directives (директивы) – express orders, demands, advices, requests; 3.Quesitives (questions)(квеситивы) asking for some information; 4. Promiseves; 4.Menacives (threatenings); 5.Performatives (greetings); 6.Expresssives – express emotion. Pocheptsov classified different works of foreign scientists – Morris, Austin, Grice, Fraser, Leech.

4. Морфологічні категорії прикметника (якісні / відносні прикметники, ступень порівняння)

The adjective has common lex.-gramm. nature & functions. It expresses the attribute of substance. All adjectives in both lan-ges are divided into two groups: Qualitative & Relative. Both groups of adj. in English have no case, gender, number. Only the first group is gradable (degrees of compare. – positive, comparative, superlative). Relative – adj., which expresses some quality through the relationships with different objects of the surrounding world (economical progress, urban area). Possessive & relative adjectives are formed from nouns, denoting family names or nouns of the countries –ic, -er (Byronic, Shakespearish). The 2-nd subdivision is represented relative adj., which have some inherent possessive meaning (Cubain, Scottish, Eastern…). / Ukr. possessive and relative adj. are formed by adding such suffixes to the noun stems: -евк, -івськ, -ськ, -цьк, -зьк, -ин, -ач, -яч (зміїний, козацький); -ів, - їв, -ин, -ін (батьків, Миколин, свекрів). /+ In Eng. there are some adj-ves in the corresponding forms – genitive case (father’s, mother’s…)./ As to the structure, adj falls into such groups: 1. Simple (root based) – big, clean, old…. 2. Derivative (похідні) – capable, boyish, rural, grammatical….. Ukr. – ден н ий, рід н ий, ськ/зьк (пари зьк ий), цьк/ан/ян/ов/ев/єв (греч ан ий), льн/ч (вибор ч ий).The allomorphic features of Ukr.— spec. gr. of evaluative adj. (diminutive) (augmentative – ручище, ручечка) suf. as еньк/есеньк/ісіньк/їсінькі/еден/ен/ач/яч/уч/ющ (багатющий). There are pref. & suffixal adj. in both la-ges. Abnormal, subnormal – antinational – антинародний. 3. Compound adj.— slack-maind – чорногривий, well-known, silk-like. / Grading of adj. Most of qual. adj. are graded. It means that they have three degrees of comparison: 1. Positive; 2. Comparative; 3. superlative

In Eng. & Ukr there are some ways of forming the degrees of comparison: 1. synthetic. (-er, -est); 2.analytic. (in colloq. emphatic speech 1 or 2 syllabic adj may be graded – more/most busy, самий/більш/набагато. /There exhist also supplitive ways of forming the compar. (good – better – the best; bad – worse – the worst). Some groups – no graduation. 1. Adj. denoting a constant feature of the noun – blind, deaf, bolded, barefoot…. 2.Adj. expressing the similarity of color – lilac – бузковий........ 3. Adj. denoting color of hair & eyes – raven black – вороний; hazel – карий..... 4. Adj. expressing the intensive property of some obj. with the help of affixation – blueish, reddish, синявий, жовтуватий.

/Isom. features – process of adjectivation: prince charming – чарівний принц, the president to elect – новообраний президент. Also – process of substantivization of adj.: диспетчерська, прийомна. / Some adj-ves are partly substantivised: the poor, the rich, the English. Ukr most of these adj-ves of neuter gender – головне, важливо, основне.... Eng. – only qualitative adj. are graduable. Ukr + N., case, gender graduable.

5. Морфологічні категорії дієслова: час (початок дії, тривалість, завершеність); вид; спосіб; особа; стан.

V- a part of speech conveying syntactically an action or state of being. The main classes of V. Are common in Eng. & Ukr. /As to their role of expressingpredicativity, -> of complete/incomplete predication. The verbs of complete predication fall into such subgroups:1 )Subjective verbs (intransitive (неперехідні): like, act, go, sleep). 2) Objective v-s (transitive (перехідні): give, take, брати, давати).3) Terminative (express an action with final aims: open, come, close...). 4) Durative v-s (express the continuous aspect: love, hate, hope, work...). 5) Mixed-type (express both terminative & durative actions). 6) Reflexive v-s (возвратные): wash-himself, вмиватися. Verbs of incomplete predication: → auxiliaries → modals → linkers. Sub-groups: a) linkers of being – to be, feel, look, seem, бути, виявлятися, зватися... в) verbs of becoming – to become; to denote physical state – to get, grow, go, tern. c) v of remaining – to remain pleased, він зостався задоволеним. Auxiliaries In Engl. serve to form Pres., Past, Fut. Cont. Tenses, the Passive Voices, Perfect Tenses, the Interrogative, Negative, will future tenses, imperative mood. (Do it now! Do come please) & some forms of subjunctive mood (I shouldn’t be surprised if I settled down here). In Ukr. - бути – polysemantic auxiliary. It is used to form: 1)Passive voice analytical form (Текст був перекладений); 2)analytical future tense forms (Текст буде перекладений); 3)subjunctive mood forms (Якби я був знав я би був прийшов); 4)Plu-perfect tense forms (= Past Perfect in English) („Ніби й задрімав був зразу, але щось приверзлося, той проснувся.”).

The typology of grammatical categories of verbs in E. & U. The finite (особові) verb in E & U has 6 common gram. categories which are realized partly with the help of synthetic means (inflexions) & partly through different analytical means. 1) Person (особа) Engl. – I know, he knows; Ukr. – Я знаю, він знає. Synthetically (inflexions). 2)Aspect (вид): He works / is working; Він читав, прочитав, читає. In Ukr.no category of aspect of duration (continuous action). This cont. aspect is expressed by the transitive verbs with suffixes -сь, -ся (or without them) + corresponding adverb or adverbial phrase - зараз, ще – (i). 3) Voice (стан, залог): The house is / was built. The house is being built (analytically). Хата (була / буде) збудовано; хід зроблено (-на, -то, -ся - syntactically). 4) Mood (спосіб): Indicative (дійсний) We love our parents. Will he come? Imperative (наказовий) Don’t speak so loud! Не розмовляйте так голосно! Subjunctive (умовний) Come that way! If he had come, he would have met her. Будь що буде! Як би він був прийшов, він би зустрівся з нею.

6. Типологія синтаксичних структур. Типи словосполучень (сурядний, підрядний, предикативній).

Typology of syntactic units in contrastive languages is based on the existence of common & divergent features of syntactic units & procedures, word-groups (словосполучення), sentences, linking clauses, types of syntactic connection, functions and so on. /There are some notions of investigation of synt units./ Syntactic function is defined as a peculiar role, played by the syntactic units while functioning. Syntactic connection is some kind of relationship between the components of a word-group, parts of a sentence or between linking clauses./A word-group in both contrastive languages consists of 2 or more grammatically connected notional parts of speech united by similar context. According to the structure w-groups may be simple (2 elements) & complicated (more than 2 elem.). According to the functions in the sentence there are free (idiomatic) w.-gr.or bounds (phr. units)./ There are 2 ways of analytical connection of w.-gr. in English: 1)Syndetic (conjunctional): books for home-reading; 2)Asyndetic: home reading book./ In E & U there are 3 types of w.-gr.: 1) Coordinate w-gr (сурядні) - components are equal in rank, connected synd. or asynd. (Books & magazines; читати і перекладати). Such word-groups perform the functions of homogeneous (однорідні) parts of the sent. according to the structure the components w-g may be simple & expended. 2)Subordinate w-gr (підрядні) – consists of a head component & 1 or more adjuncts (додатків) (components). All subord. w-gr are binary (head-adjunct). They may be: 1. Substantival (head is noun) Adjuncts may be in pre-position or past-position. Structure: they may be simple or extended. In Engl. – more s. w-gr with analytical means of connection, in Ukr. with synthetical. (cotton T-shirt (N+N); small children (Adj+N); rays of hope (N+N), page ten (N+Num)) Connected syndetically (rays of hope) or asyndetically. 2. Verbal w-gr (head is verb) Adjuncts may be in pre-position or past-position. Past-position is feature in English. Adjuncts can have extended structure. (V>N [to like books]; V>Num; V>Pronoun; V >Adj; V >Adv; V >Stative [to be asleep]) 3. Adjectival. Adjuncts may be in pre-position or past-position and may be connected syndetically or asyndetically (Adv+Adj – very good; Adv+Adj – best of all; Adj+ Noun – worth the efforts; Adj+Num – worth 2 kilos;) 4. Pronominal (indefinite pr., negative, demonstrative, reflective, impersonal) Pr+Pr – he himself; Pr+Adj – something new; Pr+ Adv; Pr+Prep+ Pr – none of them. 5. Numeral w-gr (Num+Prep+N – two of the girls; Num+Infinitive – the first to come). 6. Adverbial (terribly well (pre-position), 2 hours later (past-position)). 7. Statival w-gr (afraid to answer; soon asleep). Ukr. - adverbs & statives – Він живе добре (аdv of manner) Кому теж добре? (stative); He speaks good Engl.(adj); I’m well (stative). / 3) Predicative w-gr: a) Of primary predication - express the relationship between the subject & predicate. Common in Engl. & Ukr. (He is sleeping). b) Of secondary predication – represent verbal complexes in Engl. Allomorphic feature in E.: 1. Infinitival construction (Compl. Obj., Compl. Subj. for Inf.(for him to do; the last to do). 2. Participial constr.: 1) absolute nominal (the fine weather); 2) the objective with a participial constr. (I saw her playing the piano); 3) the subjective with participle constr. (The rain was heard pouring). 3. Gerundival constr. (Excuse (for) my being late). 4. The objective with the adj., stative or noun constr. (I found George awake; They called the baby Arthur). /In Ukr. there are no secondary predication, but some sentences can be compared. (Дівчина не застала двері зачиненими. Вони назвали хлопця Петром.)

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