Or:
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the four major countries on the British Isles.
Central Idea: England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland have their own identities and attractions.
Main Points:
a) England – the country of historical treasures.
b) Wales – the country of mountains.
c) Scotland – the home and land of golf.
d) Ireland – the country of arts and literature.
Spatial order, like chronological order, is used most often in informative speeches.
3. Casual Order.
Speeches arranged in casual order organize main points so as to show a cause-effect relationship. When a speech is put in casual order, there will be two main points – one dealing with the causes of an event, the other dealing with its effects. Depending on the topic, the first main point may be devoted to causes, the second to the effects respectively, or vice versa.
Let’s suppose the specific purpose of the speech is “To persuade that a growing amount of polluted air in Oskemen is a more serious problems for its citizens than it is stated by the Government.” Then you would begin with the causes of air pollution and work towards its effects and solution ways:
Specific Purpose: To persuade that a growing amount of polluted air in Oskemen is a more serious problems for its citizens than it is stated by the Government.
Central Idea: The growing amount of polluted air in Oskemen endangers the health of its citizens.
Main Points:
a) The city of Oskemen faces a growing air pollution each year.
b) Polluted air in Oskemen is growing due to the cityʼs large manufacture industry.
c) If the air pollution continues to enlarge, it will have an extremely bad consequences for the citizens of the city [61].
When talking about the facts which already took place and cannot be changed, there is only a cause-effect relationship – as in the speech about the Kazakh Khanate:
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the possible causes for the collapse of Kazakh Khanate.
Central Idea: The causes for the collapse of Kazakh Khanate have not been fully explained.
Main Points:
a)Kazakh Khanate flourished for IV centuries until 1800s A.D., when it began to disintegrate.
b)Scholars have advanced three major explanations for the causes of this disintegration [62].
For its versatility, causal order can be used for a type of speech to persuade the listeners, which is called a persuasive speech, or just give information on the topic of your speech, which is called informative speech.
4. Problem-Solution Order.
Speeches arranged in problem-solution order are divided into two main parts. The first shows the existence of a problem and seriousness of a problem. The second presents a workable solution to the problem. For example:
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that action is needed to combat the legislation of homosexual matrimony in Kazakhstan.
Central Idea: Legislation of homosexual matrimony is a serious problem due to our cultural peculiarities and mental understanding of homosexuality.
Main Points:
a) Homosexual matrimony may lead to riots in different parts of Kazakhstan.
b) Solving this problems needs the attention of the government and votes of the citizens against it.
Or:
Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that underpayment of teachers is a serious problem in Kazakhstan.
Central Idea: Teachers in Kazakhstan are underpaid and this may lead to serious consequences such as a poor educated generation and a bad future of our country.
Main Points:
a) The underpayment of teachers is a serious problem in Kazakhstan because the amount of money the teachers receive does not meet their needs.
b) The problem can be solved with the help of the citizens, by repeatedly reminding the government of an existing serious problem.
c) As these examples indicate, problem-solution order is most appropriate for persuasive speeches.
5. Topical Order.
Topical order results when you divide the speech topic into subtopics, each of which becomes a main point in the speech. Suppose your specific purpose is To inform my audience of the major kinds of fireworks. This topic does not lend itself to chronological, spatial, causal, or problem-solution order. Rather, you separate the subject – kinds of fireworks – into its constituent parts, so that each main point deals with a single kind of fireworks. Your central idea and main points might look like this:
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience of the major kinds of fireworks.
Central Idea: The major kinds of fireworks are skyrockets, Roman candles, pinwheels, and lances.
Main Points:
a) Skyrockets explode high in the air, producing the most dramatic effects of all fireworks.
b) Roman candles shoot out separate groups of sparks and colored flames with a series of booming noises.
c) Pinwheels throw off sparks and flames as they whirl on the end of a stick [28, p.18].
4. Lances are thin, colorful fireworks used in ground displays.
To take another example, letʼs say the specific purpose is “To inform my audience about the achievements of Shokan Ualikhanov.” Shokan Ualikhanov, a Kazakh scholar who lived at the turn of the 19th century, was an outspoken champion of social and political justice for his nation. The speech could be organized chronologically – by discussing Shokanʼs exploits during each decade of his career. On the other hand, the speech could be arranged topically – by dividing Shokanʼs accomplishments into categories. Then the central idea and main points might be:
Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the achievements of Shokan Ualikhanov.
Central Idea: Shokan Ualikhanov was a great Kazakh scientist, historian, ethnographer, geographer, educator, democrat.
Main Points:
a) As a geographer, Shokan gathered orientological, collections, studied the flora and fauna of Zhetysu and the surrounding area of Issyk Kul.
b) As an educator, Shokan Ualikhanov taught Turkic languages in higher school of the Asian Department together with I.I. Zakharov.
c) As a historian, Shokan wrote a work entitled “Genealogy of Kazakhs”, based on the works of Abylgazy “Shaibani- name”,“Shezhre-at-Turk” the theoretical value of which is high [67].
Notice how the main points subdivide the speech topic logically and consistently. Each main point isolates one aspect of Shokan Ualikhanovʼs achievements. But suppose the main points look like this:
a)As a geographer, Shokan gathered orientological, entomological collections, studied the flora and fauna of Zhetysu and the surrounding area of Issyk Kul.
b) As an educator, Shokan Ualikhanov taught Turkic languages in higher school of the Asian Department together with I.I. Zakharov.
c) Shokan returned to his native land in spring 1861, due to the progression of the disease (tuberculosis).
This would not be a good topical order because main point III is inconsistent with the rest of the main points. It deals with a period in Shokan Ualikhanovʼs life, whereas main points I and II deal with kindsof activism.
These are the main organizational orders of the body. But there are some more points to consider about the body of the speech.
Each main point in a speech should be clearly independent of the others.
The same pattern of wording could be used for main points as in the example above.
The amount of time devoted to main points should be balanced. This means allowing sufficient time to develop each main point.
Supporting Materials – by themselves, main points are only assertions. Listeners need supporting materials to accept what a speaker says. Supporting materials are the materials to support a speakerʼs ideas. The three major kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony.
Connective – is a word or a phrase that connects the ideas of a speech and indicates the relationship between them. Without connectives, a speech is disjointed and uncoordinated – much as a person would be without ligaments and tendons to join the bones and hold the organs in place. Four types of connectives are transitions, internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts.
Transitions – are words or phrases that indicate when a speaker has just completed one thought and is moving to another. Technically, the transitions state both the idea the speaker is leaving and the idea he or she is coming up to. In the following examples, the transitions are in italic:
Now that we have a clear understanding of the problem, let me share the solution with you.
I have spoken so far of bravery and patriotism, but it is the sacrifice of our granddads and grandmothers that makes us live in peace and freedom.
Keeping these points in mind about sign language, letʼs return to the sentence I started with and see if we can learn the signs for “You are my friend”.
Notice how these phrases remind the listener of the thought just completed, as well as reveal the thought about to be developed.
Internal previews – let the audience know what the speaker will take up next, but they are more detailed than transitions. In effect, an internal preview works just like the preview statement in a speech introduction, except that it comes in the body of the speech – usually as the speaker is starting to discuss a main point [41, pp.90]. For example:
In discussing how gays and lesbians are discriminated in our society, weʼll look first at the origins of the problem and second at its continuing impact today.
After hearing this, the audience knows exactly what are they going to listen to as the speaker develops the “problem” main point.
Internal previews are often combined with transitions. For example:
(Transition): Now that we have seen how faulty credit reports is, letʼs look at some solutions. (Internal Preview): I will focus on three solutions – instituting tighter government regulation of credit bureaus, holding credit bureaus financially responsible for their errors, and giving individuals easier access to their credit reports.
An internal preview is not a must for each main point in the speech, but itʼs very helpful if you think it will help listeners keep track of your ideas.
Internal summaries – are the reverse of internal previews. Rather than letting listeners know what is coming up next, internal summaries remind listeners of what they have just heard. Such summaries remind listeners of what they have just heard. Such summaries are used when a speaker finishes a complicated or particularly important main point or set of main points [41, pp.93].. For example:
In short, palm reading is an ancient art. Developed in China more than five thousand years ago, it was practiced in classical Greece and Rome, flourished during the Middle Ages, survived in industrial revolution, and remains popular today in many parts of the world.
Internal summaries are an excellent way to clarify and reinforce ideas. By combining them with transitions, you can also smoothly lead your audience into the next main point of your speech.
These were the overall instructions in organizing the body part of the speech. And only the conclusion part is left. Now letʼs move on and discuss the organization of the “Conclusion part of the speech”.
1.2.2.3 The Conclusion part of a monologue speech
The final impression is such a thing that will linger in the listenerʼs minds. “Great is the art of beginning,” said Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, “but greater is the art of ending.” Longfellow told these words about poetry, but his insight is equally applicable to speeches as well. Thus, the conclusion part should be crafted with as much care as the introduction. No matter what the topic or the type of the speech is, the conclusion part has two main functions[67]:
1. To let the audience know the speech is about to end.
2. To reinforce the audienceʼs understanding of, or commitment to, the central idea.
Signal the end of the speech.
It may seem obvious that the conclusion parts indicates letting your audience know you are going to stop soon. However, it is a common mistake that people make while speaking about certain subjects, concluding so abruptly that you may be taken by surprise. Too sudden an ending leaves the audience puzzled and surprised.
How to let the audience know that your speech is ending? One way is through what you say. “In conclusion”, “My purpose has been”, “Let me end by saying” – these are all brief cues that will let the listeners know you are going to stop. There are also transitions for summarizing the speech. They are:
(Simple)
After all
All in all
All things considered
Briefly
By and large
In any case
In any event
In brief
In coclusion
On the whole
In summary
In the final analysis
In the long run
To sum up
To summarize
Finally
(More Complicated)
Having told all this, I would like to end by saying...
In this speech, my purpose has been...
As my time with you is coming to its end, the same as my speech...
Let me end by saying...
In the end, I would like you to know that...
I had a great pleasure sharing this all with you and...
My last words about this are that...
And in the end, I deeply feel my duty to tell you that...
As you have been all sitting here to this very end, I would like to let you know that...
So, everything said was of much of importance for me as I hope is the same for you...
What I was hoping you to know is...
Reinforcing the central idea
The above were the transition words and phrases to help you conclude the speech. But there are as well other ways of summarizing the same as introducing the speech. And reinforcing the audience’s understanding of, or commitment to, the central idea is the second major function of a conclusion. Here are the most effective ways to do this:
a) Summarizing your speech.
Restating the main points is the easiest way to end a speech. One student used this technique effectively in his speech about the AIDS epidemic in Africa:
In conclusion, we have seen that the AIDS epidemic is having a devastating effect on African society. An entire adult generation is slowly being wiped out. An entirely new generation of AIDS orphans is being created. Governments in the nations most afflicted have neither the resources nor the expertise to counter the epidemic. Many African economies are being crippled by loss of people in the workplace.
Before itʼs too late, the United Nations and developed countries need to increase their efforts to halt the epidemic and bring it under control. The lives and well-beings of tens of millions of people hang in the balance.
Thank you for your attention!
The value of a summary is that it explicitly restates the central idea and main points one last time. But as we shall see, there are a lot of imaginative and compelling ways to end a speech.
The transition words and phrases for summarizing the speech have been mentioned above so I do not think there is a need to mention them again. Let us move to the next point of reinforcing the central idea.
b) Making a dramatic statement.
Using a dramatic statement to final your speech gives the conclusion force and power. And it is also not as difficult as you may think for the students of 9-11 grades. This method of ending the speech is used to stun the listeners, and to empower their impression of the main points that were discussed in the body part of the monologue speech. For example, let us imagine a situation where a student will be talking about patriotism:
All in all, what I wanted to say to all of you, my dear friends, that it is us, who should imbue a bright future for the nations of our beloved Kazakhstan, that it is us, who should stand for its economic and political stability, that it is us, who should keep the peace among all nations in this holy country, and that it is us who should prepare a stable and peaceful Kazakhstan for our descendants the same way like our ancestors gave their lives so that we could live in peace and friendship.
Would not this kind of conclusion be impressive? I think it would be hugely impressive and would courage the other students who could have been listening to that speech. So I do truly recommend making a dramatic statement to conclude a monologue speech. It is one of the best ways to make the listeners say: “Oh, that was fantastic”.
c) Referring to the introduction.
Referring to the introduction is an excellent way to give your speech the presence of psychological unity. And as well, this may be used to let the listeners recall what was told in the very beginning and thus, they may run through whole the speech and remember some important statements or main points mentioned in the body part for a very long time. For example:
Introduction: The man stands up at five in the morning, has his cup of tea, and goes running for three hours. All these three hours, he runs without stopping. After he finishes, he has a shower and a nice breakfast. Then he goes training. He lifts tons of metal every day and he doesn’t say: “Oh, I’m tired. I am too weak to do all this job”. Of course he doesn’t. Why would he? He has a goal to become a world champion. To become the best boxer of the world. That is his dream. How do you think, if he continues the same way, would he become a world champion? Yes, I know, the answer is obvious. As obvious as, if you do some things to achieve your goals and worked on them regularly, you will for sure achieve what you want to.
The above is a necessary introduction to show you how effective may referring to the introduction be in some situations while ending the speech. And here is an example of such a conclusion:
Remember the man I was talking about in the very beginning? Yes, a boxer with a dream to become a world champion. I think this wonʼt be a surprise for all of you, if I say that he finally achieved his dream. You may have a lot of names in your mind, like Mohammed Ali or Mike Tyson. But I want to disappoint you. I was talking about the proud of our country, Gennadii Golovkin. Yes, yes, he is a bright example that a person should have really manly kind of character and not give up at no time. Then, and only then, he will be able to get what he wants. Thank you for your attention!
So the first part of our work has come to an end we have studied the essential theoretical aspects of applying lexical models while teaching a foreign language.
Summary of Part 1
In the first part of this work we have found out that monologue speech is a type of a complicated speech pattern. We have worked with different definitions of different scholars on methodology trying to find out what a “monologue speech” is and have come to a point of view that it is a type of a speech which is more complicated than a message and is characterized by a flow of actions or statistics or facts. The development of a monologue speech needs special attention on the whole period of learning foreign languages.
Also, we have prepared a variety of lexical models to be based on while speaking. And as well, as the word “lexica” which means “word; connected with words; concerning words;” cannot stand alone and should be always accompanied by that of the notion “semantic” which means “meaning; concerning the meaning of a word;” and made - up a Lexica-Semantic Model of a Monologue speech which we believe would be really helpful in intensifying the training of a monologue speech at the schools at the upper-intermediate level.
As of the upper-intermediate level, we have also found out that at that level the students tend to speak more and really like speaking on different global subjects such as the global problems concerning the world or different political topics or the influence of some things on the worlds and etc. So at this level, it is ideal to teach monologue speech and give the students free space to talk and to train their speaking skills, as the spoken language is can only be mastered by practicing it only and even a high level of the studentsʼ grammar skills and vocabulary skills cannot help the student to become more fluent at speaking if he or she does not train it appropriately.
2 THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF LEXICAL MODELS
2.1 Modern techniques of intensifying the training of studentsʼ monologue speech
At the upper - intermediate level of teaching monologue speech, the teacher should first of all, make the students speak out the lexical models. First, the teacher reads the lexical models and tells the students to repeat after him. Thus, the pronunciation of these models would be fixed in their minds for a short time. And so that the students memorize the models, the teacher should give the students some time to make up a small speech to consolidate the information just learned.
T – C – T – C – T – C –T –C...(T – Teacher; C – class;)
This kind of intermediate speaking practice should be carried on for a limited number of lessons only. When a class has been advanced far enough to be ready for more independent speech making, repeating the lexical models in chorus might be eliminated, and exercises which will force students to use the vocabulary which should get fixed in their vocabulary base shall be introduced.
When the students have learned the meanings and the situations where that lexical models should or can be used, they should make up two - three paragraphs using the lexical models just learned. It gives the teacher an opportunity to see whether each of his students understand the meaning of each lexical model correctly.
Thus and so, I want to point out three main important methods of intensifying the monologue speech training. They are the followings:
1. Formation of skills of problem monologue statements on the basis of a fable text.
2. Formation of skills of monologue statements on the basis of gradually coming partial information.
3. Formation of skills of retrospectivvely evaluating the authorʼs idea within “home - reading”.
Letʼs view these methods in a more detailed way. Here is an example lesson based on the formation of monologue skills on the basis of a fable text:
The aim of the lesson is learning the exaltation of the characteristics of the object expression, the development of skills of evaluating, selecting, and grouping the characteristics in accordance with the studentʼs own opinion. Expressing agreement/disagreement and arguments to support his/her point of view.
Leading operations - selection, structuring, summarizing, mapping.
The structure of a lesson.
The aim of the lesson is to teach you to formulate your point of view and find arguments to support it.
1. Drafting statements of wildcard table. Give your ideas concerning peopleʼs qualities and actions.
Table 2 – A fable text exercise
Itʼs (un)natural Itʼs immoral
Itʼs (hardly) necessary Itʼs quite (im)possible Itʼs (un)desirable | to deliver lectures from memory. for a teacher to have an excellent memory. for a scientist to be absent-minded. to let others make use of your ideas. to agree with every opinion your teacher expresses |
And in these kinds of exercises, transition words used for giving opinions and arguments are used as lexical models. They are:
Table 3 – Transitions for giving opinions and arguments
Expressing opinion | Argument or another point |
In my experience… As far as Iʼm concerned… Speaking for myself… In my opinion… Personally, I think… Iʼd say that… Iʼd suggest that… Iʼd like to point out that… I believe that… What I mean is… | although, but, contradicting, despite (the fact that), however, in contrast, in spite of the fact that, in spite of this, it cannot be reasonably deduced/inferred/assumed from this that, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, of course, on the contrary, on the one hand... on the other hand, paradoxically, still, that is, the previous does not imply/demonstrate/show, the apparent implication is that, unfortunately that does not, while it is the case that..., still..., while it may be that, while it may seem that, yet. |
2. The creation of a connected initiative replica (based on a specified point of view) and preparation of polemical response replicas.
Express your attitude to the statements giving an argument or two to explain what you mean. Let your partner respond with one or two other arguments supporting your point of view or opposing it. Donʼt exchange your ideas before your turn comes round!
a) Absent-minded people canʼt be successful in research.
b) A good memory is absolutely necessary for a teacher.
c) An unscrupulous person can be a good teacher.
d) Itʼs no use working hard if you have no inborn abilities.
e) Learning things word for word makes a student dull.
3. Characteristics of a fable character of the text based on the selection of personality traits from the list and confirm these facts from the text (“Uncle Theo”).
Characterize Mr. Hobdell making use of the following vocabulary (you may break the given pairs into separate elements and combine them in your own way). Justify your choice by giving facts from the story: “Industrious but dull, hard-working and talented, clever but slow, absent-minded but amusing, absent-minded but able to concentrate, quick-witted and resourceful, kind but strong willed.”
4. Summary of the story in one sentence by analogy.
The story you read last week, “Samʼs Boy”, is a story about an orphan boy who embarrasses people by calling them “father” and “mother” and who finally gets adopted by a kind elderly couple, after a series of amusing incidents.
Give a one-sentence summary of the story “Uncle Theo” according to the given pattern above.
5. A comparison of two literary texts for similarities and differences of life collisions.
Explain whether the human situation presented in this story has anything to do with the one given in S. Maughamʼs story “The Ant and the Grasshopper ”.
6. Listening, and summarizing the text-based questions.
Listen to the text on the CD (“Teachers and Actors”) and answer the following questions:
a) What are the qualities of an actor a teacher needs to become a professional?
b) What are the means a teacher employs to make his approach more effective?
c) What are the differences between the work of a teacher and that of an of an actor?
d) What qualities can prevent a good teacher from becoming an actor?
7. Explanatory monologue the statement associated with ethical issues of a literary text and to specific parts of the text for listening.
Would you like to have Theo Hobdell for a teacher? Explain, why. Try to be objective: give your arguments and counter-arguments.
And in this kind of exercises, causal transitions are to be used. They are:
Table 4 – Causal transitions
Causal transitions: These transitions signal cause/effect and reason/result etc. | |
Cause/Reason: | Condition: |
for the (simple) reason that, being that, for, in view of (the fact), in as much as, to (the fact), etc. | on (the) condition (that), in case, in the event that, if,unless, only if, even if, provided that, providing that, as/so long as, given that, granting (that), etc. |
Purpose: | Consequence: |
for the purpose of, in the hope that, for fear that, so that, to the end that, in order to, so etc. | under those circumstances, then, in that case, if not, that being the case, etc. |
Effect/Result: | |
as a result (of this), consequently, hence, so, for this reason, therefore, because (of this), thus, in consequence, accordingly, as a consequence, so much (so) that, so that, etc. |
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