Grammar appears in ancient times. It originated from letter and originally it was a science or art of good spelling and writing. Grammar become the part of philosophy and mainly a part of logics. Grammar is good logician (Korsakov).
At the same time, Grammar was studied by Socrates. At that time Grammar was a part of leading the discussion. At those times much attention was paid on syntactic organization. Many terms, such as sentence, subject, predicate modifier.
The 1st Grammar book was ancient.
Grammar reflects the system of a subject. It is based on 2 main laws:
- The law of symmetry
- The law of analogy
These are 2 main laws of biology. Grammar is the skeleton of the language – it exists objectively without our wish and makes it possible to communicate.
Objective Grammar – is the set of rules objectively existing in the language and making possible for the speaker to communicate on this language.
Speaking about the Subjective grammar, it is a grammar that is used by individual in his/her speech for the purpose of communication.
The subjective Grammar can influence on Objective Grammar and vice versa.
Practical Grammar – it is implied discipline which teaches the rules of the Objective Grammar for practical means: taught in schools, universities. Practical Grammar is dictating and prescriptive.
Theoretical Grammar – is an attempt to explain rules and regulations existing in Objective Grammar. It is speculated theoretical science.
Both Grammars are subjective and objective at the same time.
Theoretical Grammar is Subjective in the way that it reflects individual approaches, undertakings by different people and it is Objective in the aspect of the objective truth.
Minor types of grammar:
- Descriptive Grammar – describe, but not explain
- Universal Grammar (General) – people speak, General approach to all languages
- Comparative Grammar – compares different languages upon the background of universal grammar
Periodization:
I. Pre-normative Grammar – 1600-18 cent.
II. Prescriptive Grammar – 18-19 cent.
III. Classical Grammar – 1891-1940s.
IV. Modern Grammar 1940s – 1980s.
V. The newest trends in Grammar – 1980 - …
I - Pre-normative Grammar (Early)
Before this period there were only dialects to understand each other. And beginning from 1600 there appeared National language – it was formed from the Midland dialects. In this period W. Carton started writing on the … Also Choser began writing his Canterbury Tales. The first book that was published was Bible, then was printed “Canterbury Tales” and the 3rd book was printed The Grammar Book – “A Bref Grammar of English” – W. Bullokar 1585. It was the descriptive grammar.
W.Lily was the first person who wrote the first grammar book, a Latin grammar book. Ben Johnson and Charles Butler are famous surnames for Grammar – they also wrote grammar books. It was a great step forward, they were the first people who wrote about regular/irregular verbs and they numerate these verbs.
The early prenormative grammars of English reproduced the Latin classification of the word-classes which included eight parts of speech. Substantives and adjectives were grouped together as two kinds of nouns, the participle was considered as a separate part of speech. In the earliest English grammars the parts of speech were divided dichotomically into declinable and indeclinable parts of speech or words with number and words without number (Ben Jonson), or words with number and case and words without number and case (Ch. Butler).
Ben Johnson ’s and Charles Butler ’s English grammars pointed out two cases of the English noun, regular/irreguar?while in Wallace ’s grammar (1653), which was written in Latin, the category of cases is said to be nonexistent, and the ‘s form is defined as a possessive adjective. This view was supported by an early 18th century grammar, attributed to John Brightland, who preferred also the two-case system. In J.
Brightland's grammar the number of partsof speech was reduced to four. These were: names (nouns), qualities (adjectives), affirmations (verbs) and particles.
It was great step forward because of taking syntax from logic and brought it into the grammar.
He postulated the direct word order, the conjugation and declination, introduction to the syntax appeared.
II Period. Prescriptive (Normative) Grammar
It was the time of enlightment, time of all great scientific discoverings.
The French Academy appeared in this period. There practiced censure. They tried to afforce the language.
R. Lowth – was the Head of than Academy, he was also a philologist, he wrote a grammar book in 1762 which he named “A Short Introduction to the English Grammar” + 1st Dictionary.
His exact words in the preface of this book:
“The aim of my prescriptive grammar is to reduce the English language to rules ans set up a standard of correct usage”
He introduced the notion of The Norm – is the way educated people express their ideas in writing, it is fixed in lexics and dictionaries, the norm is conditioned by the history of the language development and it is obligatory to keep it.
H was the person who innovated The Universal Grammar.
His words: “Grammar in general or universal grammar explains the principles which are common to all languages. The grammar of any particular language as the English grammar applies those common principals to that particular language according to established usage and custom of it. ”
Grammatical universally – is phenomenon to three different languages belonging to three different language families.
The Oxfordian Grammar School
The group of linguists wanted to revise the masterpieces of linguistics. They destroy the origin of the texts. They were situated on the territory of the Oxford.
In 1795 Lindly Murray published book “English Grammar adapted to different classes of learners”. This book was very popular and had 50 editions, people wanted to speak grammatically and everyone had this book on table. This book was for common people, who hadn’t any education. He included a special part about how to sit, how to behave, manner in society (speech etiquette).
Speech etiquette – a set of speech rules and behavior observed in public at a proper time in proper language community. SE differs in different countries.
His grammar was for different classes of learners.
III Period – Classical Grammar
1871 – Henry Sweet - “A new English Grammar – logical and historical”
By the end of 18th century grammar became holistic without any explanation.
This date starts a new period in grammar, and Henry wrote in the preface:
“This work is intended to supply the want of a scientific English grammar. The difference in purposes between scientific and prescriptive grammar is stated in the following terms. As my exposition claims to be scientific I confine myself to the statement and explanation of facts without attempting to settle the relative correctness of divergent usage”. From here there follows his “ The Doctrine of the General Use”: “Whatever is in general use is for that reason correct”.
His postulates:
1) the Doctrine of the General Use;
2) the concept of the norm;
3) grammar is a science, rests upon 3 whales: history of the language, logic and philosophy; nowadays we can speak about the 4th whale – psychology;
It permitted him to reformulate the notion of the norm:
“ the norm is the way educated people speak and express their ideas in written, it is historically and logically conditioned, it undergoes changes alongside with the changes taking place in the language and is characteristic of a certain historical period”
Sweet was the first who took an effort to define “ a part of speech ” – a word or a group of words having the same meaning, form and function. He was the first who gave definition to noun, verb, part of speech.
A sentence – is a lexical and grammatical representation of the human thoughts.
Sweet also spoke about 2 possible ways of grammatical investigation. Sweet opened a way for scientific research in grammar, and it also gave a push to appearance of other works of the same profile.
He spoke about oral speech and written speech – 2 approaches. He claimed the priority of oral speech above written.
2 approaches to linguistic analysis: synchronic (horizontal analysis) and diachronic (vertical).
“Before history, there must come knowledge of what now exists, we must learn to observe things as they are without regard to their origin as a zoologist must learn to describe accurately a horse and not the dinosaurs it originated from”.
This period lasted for a long time and became predominating. L. de Saussure, H, Paul, O. Jespersen – classical grammatists.
Many of them were of the foreign origin – always more evident from aside.
V Modern Period.
Approximately 1940-50. Post-war time. Structural grammar. The first grammar which violated rules. It began treating the English language from the point of view of its structure. They began from criticism of everything done before them (they called it pre-scientific era).
P. Roberts said that people’s minds are so much loaded with the previous ideas in grammar that only by taking boys and girls to an uninhabited island where nobody could explain to them essentials of grammar we could start a new really scientific epoch in the English grammar. They singled out structure as something of a paramount value. They claimed that the structure IN ITSELF has a meaning. Those scientists focused attention to the structure of the language as the most responsible part of the language. Structure has governed the whole language. A structure has a meaning, which comes out of the structure itself.
Structural linguistics gave much to the development of grammar in general but its drawback was that it absolutized the importance of the sentence structure.
IC-analysis 1951, Trager & Smith – analysis in the terms of subject and predicate group, based on links between members of the sentence and their subordination (a Tenier tree).
A pretty girl was reading an interesting book.
A pretty girl Was reading an interesting book
/ \ / \
A girl pretty was reading an interesting book
/\ / \
A girl a book
The principle is – interdependence of the elements. It shows different degree of subordination on different levels.
Charles Fries – the most outstanding structuralist. He suggested test-frame analytics. He was an American and lived in Chicago, worked in NY and Chicago Universities, unmarried. He was absent-minded and wore hats. He spent 24 hours at the British jails. He believed in Henry Sweet conception. Ge offered principle of perfocarts. He spoke about positional classes and form groups.
He had 4 positional classes. 19 functional groups.
The coffee is good.
Class I (Noun) | Class II (Verbs) | Class III (Adjectives) | Class IV (Adverbs) |
The coffee a dog a book a table
| is was barks sits | good black cold fresh | there here now yesterday |
group a: the, a, Jane’s, two
group b: may, might, can
and so on.
He was the one who suggested very simple and justifiable way of classifying and grading. Простой способ классификации – по позиции определяем класс. Он первым предложил синтансическую формулу предложений.
What drawbacks:
For example, in the 1st class - there are words from which the sentence begins, but
There were two trees.
- Interjection - express human emotions. They belong to meaning, not to the structure.
- He says that class 3 (adjectives) can be equally put in the PRE- position or the PAST- position of the Class 1.
The coffee was good. Good coffee is being served.
But it is not always so.
Daily paper – the paper is daily
Solar system – the system is solar
He violated the rules himself, his principle not always worked.
Structural Grammar gave a new outlook on the structure of the sentence and the system of the language itself. It studied peculiarities of syntactic organization and the meaning of the structure – and it is positive.
The negative side of this branch is the meaning of the structure shouldn’t be overlooked; it should be filled with sense. They focused only upon the structure.
Transformational Grammar
Was founded on the achievements of structural grammar with certain innovations of their own.
Appeared in 50s.
Noam Chomsky – he was the former resident of USSR, he was creator of machines. Then he moved to US obcessed with the idea of creation a language understandable by machines. He was very complicated personality – psychologically and scientifically.
He spoke about kernel sentences and generated sentences.
Kernel models – ядерные модели. They include only the obligatory sentence members.
A pretty girl was reading an interesting book.
Abshtrichmetode – методика вычеркивания всего лишнего, необязательных слов для сохранения смысла.
Kernel sentences and basing upon it and ways of sentence generating.
1. By adding new optional elements, like adjectives, attributes, etc.
2. By changing the sentence structure (question or negation from the same elements)
3. Transformation. A transformational operation consists in changing the sentence structure without affecting the sense very much.
He wrote a letter. I have a habit of writing a letters every week.
A letter is written by him. I use to writing letters.
I write letters every week.
Due to Chomsky we have machine translation. Chomsky and his followers stated that many sentences are interchange in the meaning and sense, but different in form.
Absolutizing is always erroneous.
Variational translation – is translation performed in different ways of rendering the initial text.
It may rain. It looks like raining.
Perhaps it will rain. It is likely to rain.
It looks like rain.
Equivalent, very close meaning.
Deep and surface structure.
I saw him cross the street –
If we disclose we get:
I saw that he crossed the street.
Transformational grammar was the first who introduced the essential points of investigation such things as:
- Syntactic component
- Semantic component
- Phonological component
Frank Palmer is a founder of associative chains. (Psychological groups based on assosiations).
He wrote an article and killed transformation grammar. He showed that it is not the absolute thing, that there are other things.
He showed the double-nature of gerund by splitting it into the verb and noun.
We enjoy smoking (Gerund) – we smoke (verb) – we enjoy it (n)
Palmer changed the sentence:
we oppose smoking – we smoke – we oppose it.
Palmer proved that transformational operations don’t always work with a living language because it is complicated and transformations are primitive. On the harm of smoking – his linguistic article.
Generative semantics (порождающая значение) 60-70s.
Charles Fillmore 1967 «A case for case».
It is no coincidence that logical and grammatical terms are the same.
He stated that grammar is the part of logic, that it was originated from logic.
He decided to come back to the rules, to seek for regulations and to start studying the Grammar from the point of logic.
Grammar in the level of meaning. He said that actually relevant for all structures – is information they convey.
Symbolic logic – logical subjects and logical predicates and the arguments (attributes).
Потебня
Нам трудно хорошо учиться.
В зависимости от смыслового ударения меняется смысл.
Depending on logical stress we see the change of logical subject. Logical subject and grammatical subject don’t coincide.
John killed Bill
John killed the bear.
We can understand the meaning only thanks to word order. If we change words places we’ll get another meaning.
So we need develop the sentence:
John caused Bill not to be alive.
John was the actual cause of Bill’s death.
Fillmore suggested 2 layers of analysis.
1) Proposition
2) Model constituents
Preposition is tenseless set of relations given in the utterance (вневременная сетка отношений в высказывании). Information or basic information given in the sentence or as he says it is a timeless modeless set of relationships between the actants in the sentence. (fact)
Model constituent is a cover of subjective and objective modality, tenses, time references, truth evaluation – affirmative or negative, communicative type of sentence, modal words, etc.
Main drawback – exaggerating the role of meaning in the sentence and ignoring the sentence structure.
The stages of linguistic analysis and laws of cognition
Classical theoretical grammar is the stem of a grammar tree.
1. Choosing a topic of scientific investigation – it is to be urgent, interesting.
How to see is it urgent or not? Judging upon conferences, publications, getting to know the actual problems in grammar.
2. The second stage of analysis closely connected with laws of cognition.
The First Basic law says:
From livable speculation to abstract thinking and from it to practice. That is the dialectical way of finding the truth.
Livable speculation – collection of examples of speech (of oral or written speech). What are the pros. and contras?
Oral speech – means recording people talking. Nowadays you can take radio, films, etc.
1. You can’t be sure whether this actor speaks not grammatically or grammatically on purpose or it is his own personal character.
2. People change their manner of speech as they know they are recorder. They control themselves very much.
In written speech it can be taken from literary fiction, etc. – all works, which is written by person and all characters are his creation. For studying grammar we prefer written – it is fixed.
How many examples should we gather? The quantity of examples selected should be governed by the
The Second Law of Cognition:
If one wants to conceive the object of studying, one is to find out all its properties, its functions and relations.
To encompass all the totality of the texts, the linguist is to study the general amount of the texts – all the texts created and to be created – it is impossible.
So we relate to the laws of mathematical linguistics (Korsakov, Perebiynos, Nosenko, Petrovsky, Bigtayeva).
They formulated the laws of M.L. based upon relative mistake. The relative mistake in linguistics shouldn’t be more than 25%.
Why such a big range? Because any language – is a living being and ve study tendency.
The Law of Filling Up Models
It is built upon mathematics but combined with the law of relativity.
Ex. 1000 examples, classifying in accordance with the purpose for a certain groups. The collection of examples id to be consequtive – все подряд. If you see that some fall out, you change purposes and you double the quantity of examples until everything is classified. Geometrical progression.
How do you classify examples selected?
By the laws of cognition.
When we deal with the form and contents, form is a surface expression of phenomena and meaning – is inner contents.
The form is essential, the essential has a form which differs depending upon the contents.
If there are two different forms their contents are different. If we can’t see difference, we simply don’t know it.
How to judge, what is essential, what is not?
Essential is something which repeated in all cases of its use. The essential is usually something which is general for the phenomena.
The unity of particular and general.
The general – usually reflects repeated characteristics of the object of the study.
Particular – is something which is a characteristic of a given object only.
The essential is correlated with general.
General for students of RGF – knowing English
Particular – age, sex, etc.
In linguistic investigation we study the general characteristics of the object of study, casting away the particular characteristics, depending on the point of vision.
Adjective – признаки прилагательного – имеет degrees of comparison, etc. The color of adjective is not important.
This way we classify our examples and classification is to answer 2 basic principle of the language: symmetry and analogy.
Before making one’s own conclusion one is to contrast the existing points of view and check them on the actual material.
I open the manual and read:
1. Particle “to” is not put after make.
2. Particle “to” is not put after verbs of comparison, but there are verbs such as “get”
I see discrepancies and check up my own purposes, then I build my own conclusion, upon symmetry and analogy.
Problem of the parts of speech is considered to be one of the basic, global problems in grammar.
Because subdivision of words into parts of speech is the oldest principle of their subdivision classifying.
By Henry Sweet:
Words form a part pf speech if they have the same meaning form and function (syntactic role in sentence).
What sets of parts of speech exist in English. There are different classifications of the parts of speech. The final number of the parts of speech may differ, depending on them.
1. Classical classification (Ganshina, Vasilevskaya, Kaushanskaya) – 13 parts of speech.
(Noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb, article, particle, preposition, conjunction, modal words, interjection, word-sentences)
2. Ilyish while analyzing this classification did away word-sentences, because they are sentences, they do not belong to parts of speech. Articles are actually word-changing morphemes, so it is noun.
But he added a new part – Category of state.
3. Haymovich (пингвин) and Rogovskaya didn’t feel sure about casting away, but they added Ilyish’s part of speech and called it Stative.
4. British lexicologist. They have 8 parts of speech (Maxwell, Nesfield) – npun, pronoun, adjective adverb, verb, preposition, conjunction, interjection.
5. Structuralists. Charles Fries. He gave 4 classes and 19 functional positions.
The problem of the category of state
Ilyish founded a term – Category of state – some words, beginning with A (afraid)
The actual material proves that there are no such new category as category of state and the words used here as a category of state function as a noun, adjective, verbs – their meaning could be understood from a contents.
They went aboard the ship.
I was more afraid than she.
She was the most aloof woman.
He turned to me his amazed stair.
And here is Stone Wall Problem. This name was given because this problem is very hard.
A boy messenger
A stone wall
The gas/wood store
The children garden
The football team
By Nesfield:
The noun is a word used to define a person or thing.
An adjective is a word used to qualify a noun
W. Francis (structuralist) gave us the position of the words.
A curious watch
Stand
People Watch
Stand
Another structuralist said: we must give up hope of defining such words as parts of speech. He suggested to use Ch. Fries test frames.
Alex Sternitsky said that actually these words are threated they are composite words (lady-bird, sun-flower, wall-paper) – they are composite nouns.
Ilyish claimed that these words are nouns, as they can be plural.
Pochepsov and Shudin – attributive nouns – their new part of speech. Any noun used to qualify any noun is actually attributive noun.
We observed here syntax, morphology, because adjectives, nouns, verbs are all morphological cathegory.
Object, subject – are syntactical category.
Here is the new problem.
Problem of language and speech
F. de Saussure – person who lived in 1857-1913 and gave an input in grammar. He followed H. Sweets steps in classical grammar. The number of his ideal were developed by French and American scientists and are still been developed. He was travelled around the world and was given a lecture as a professor in linguistics.
P. Seche and Ch. Bally collected students notes because he didn’t wrote no books after his death – his books were made by his students or followers.
He was the 1st to distinguish between language and speech. He envisaged language and speech as universal contradiction which developed in the course of dialectics.
The difference between language and speech and the antinomy between them.
1. Language is social 1. Speech is individual
2. Language is diachronic 2. Speech is synchronic
3. Language is a system 3. Speech is asystematic
4. Language is essence (сущность) 4. Speech is phenomenon
The language treatment of the 1st element in the “stone wall problem” depends on a level of our investigation. If we treat them on a level of speech they are used as adjectives, because it is their accidental use.
But. If we take them on the level of the language – they are nouns, because parts of speech are actually parts of the language.
Black suited her.
He got over his mad soon enough
The flight was ready take off.
I’ll radio you from here.
Ken is tennissing with her.
Will you come? – There is a lot of maybes.
The scientific definition of the parts of speech
By Korsakov. He grounded his definition on the unity of the form and the contents.
Parts of speech – are words having the same essential formal and contents characteristics.
Parts of Speech are the most global so they should be mentioned between global philosophical things.
Anyway language reflects only things registered by our minds.
“Totality of processes” – the meaning matter is represented by totality of processes.
Чемов «Вещи ствойства и отношения» - Substances, properties and relationships – the basic elementary component of the objective world are: substances, properties and relationships. He treated properties in Aristotells – He said:
Movements is an attribute of matter.
Parts of speech
that is reflected
The objective world
they are
substances properties relationships
they reflected on our mentality
concepts of substances concepts of properties concepts of relationships
are reflected in the language by special signs
signs of substances signs of properties signs of relationships
The system of parts of speech in different languages coincide to a certain extent but differs in many ways. According to this there are 3 parts of speech (Korsakov)
Substantive
1. Noun
2. Pronoun
Properties
3. Adjective
4. Adverb
5.
Relationships
6. Conjunction
7. Preposition
8.
9. Interjection – mixed category.
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