The first digital optical disks were produced in 1982 as compact disks for music. They were further developed as a storage medium for computers. The disks are made of plastics coated with aluminium. The information is recorded by using a powerful laser to imprint bubbles on the surface of the disk. A less powerful laser reads back the pictures, sound or information. An optical disk is almost indestructible and can store about 1000 times more information than a plastic disk of the same size.
One CD-ROM disk (650 MB) can replace 300,000 pages of text (about 500 floppies), which represents a lot of savings in databases.
The future of optical storage is called DVD (digital versatile disk). A DVD-ROM can hold up to 17 GB, about 25 times an ordinary CD-ROM. For this reason, it can store a large amount of multimedia software and complete full-screen Hollywood movies in different languages. However, DVD-ROMs are «read-only» devices. To avoid this limitation, companies also produce DVD rewritable drives.
Besides, it is reported that an optical equivalent of a transistor has been produced and intensive research on optical electronic computers is underway at a number of US companies as well as in countries around the world.
It is found that optical technology is cost-effective and versatile. It finds new applications every day — from connecting communication equipment or computers within the same building or room to long-distance transcontinental, transoceanic and space communications.
Text IOC
Прочитайте текст и расскажите о практическом применении лазеров.
An Encyclopedia on a Tiny Crystal
Scientists have discovered that a laser beam can be effectively used to record alphanumeric data and sound on crystals. According to Russian researchers a method for recording information on crystals by means of a laser has already been developed, but advanced technologies are needed to make it commercially applicable.
At present researchers are looking for the most suitable chemical compounds to be used as data storages and trying to determine optimum recording conditions. Theoretically, the entire «Great Soviet Encyclopedia» can be recorded on a single tiny crystal.
As far back as 1845, Michael Faradey discovered that a light beam reverses its polarization as it passes through a magnetized crystal. Scientists of our day have used this phenomenon to identify crystalline materials capable of storing information. Lasers have been successfully employed to record information on and read it off.
No ideal data storage crystal has yet been found, but it is obvious now that the future of computer engineering lies in lasers and optoelectronics.
Text 10D
Прочитайте текст и найдите примеры все возрастающей тенденции к более тесному международному сотрудничеству. Почему такое сотрудничество необходимо? Назовите страны-участницы такого сотрудничества. Запомните произношение названий стран.
Science and International Cooperation
One of the most striking features of modern science is the increasing tendency towards closer cooperation between scientists and scientific organizations (institutions) all over the world. In fact, it is becoming more and more evident that many of the problems that affect the world today cannot be solved without joining scientific efforts and material resources on a world-wide scale. The exploration of space, world finance, global environment protection problems and the development of new sources of power are the examples of areas of scientific research which are so costly and complicated that it is difficult for a single country to solve them efficiently and in a short period of time. The renewal of international scientific cooperation was demonstrated in the sharing of data which were obtained by Russian, Japanese and European space probes in 1986 on Halley's comet.
Many countries were successfully cooperating on a programme called Intercosmos in launching a large number of vertical geophysical rockets and satellites. Space exploration programmes were being conducted between Russia and Austria, India, France, Sweden and other countries. Joint manned flights by Russian and foreign cosmonauts included citizens from numerous countries. Many international crews have worked on orbit and carried out a lot of scientific experiments.
Russian and the U.S. engineers are now working side by side on the International Space Station, the largest peacetime engineering project in history.
Launched from opposite sides of the world, the first International Space Station components Zarya and Unity have begun a new era of exploration as 16 nations joined their scientific and technological resources in the first truly international space program to improve life on Earth. Even before its launch, the International Space Station has opened new spheres of research on Earth by overcoming barriers of language, culture and technological differences worldwide.
Indeed, it represents unprecedented (беспрецедентный, беспримерный) global cooperation and trust. There is no doubt that it is the first step towards a unified «planetary civilization» that will explore space as citizens of Earth, not of individual nations.
ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ЗАДАНИЯ
Упражнение 1. А. Прочитайте словосочетания из текста 10А и постарайтесь понять значения выделенных слов.
1. time to disintegrate
2. the duration of the pulse
3. to be encountered
4. in just a fraction of a second
В. Подберите к каждому выделенному в А слову соответствующее ему по значению.
a. to meet unexpectedly
b. only, merely
c. break up into small parts
d. time during which smth lasts or exists
Упражнение 2. А. Прочитайте текст и постарайтесь понять значение словосочетания off-the-shelf item. Дайте определение или объяснение этому термину.
Laser Propulsion
Another approach is to absorb laser light in a plasma «flame» sustained by laser light focused in the center of a flowing stream of propellant gas. Thrust levels as high as 10,000 N with a specific impulse (удельный импульс) of 1,000 sec appear achievable using hydrogen as the propellant gas. Laser power as low as 1 MW would be useful for low Earth orbit launching without relay optics. 10-100 MW lasers can launch small payloads from the ground. With up to 100 launches a day, a 20 MW launcher weighing 20 kg could place several hundred tons in orbit per year. Low-gigawatt lasers could launch multi-ton spacecraft with the same ease that present multi-gigawatt chemical rockets do. Laser rockets will have much better payload fraction since the heavy power plant is left on the ground and the higher specific impulse results in lower propellant fraction. Although gigawatt lasers are not off-the-shelf items, there is no doubt they could be built if the need were strong enough.
В. Выберите соответствующие контексту А значения выделенных слов.
approach
a. coming near to
b. approximation, a way to solve a problem
c. way, path, road
sustain
a. enable to keep up, maintain
b. suffer, undergo
c. keep from falling
relay
a. supply of fresh horses to take the place of tired ones
b. device which receives signals and transmits them with greater strength, thus increasing the distance over which they are carried
c. place from which radio programs are broadcast after being received from another station
payload
a. passengers and cargo, but not fuel
b. bomb in a missile
c. crew and instruments of a spaceship item
a. each single thing, part or object in a list
b. detail or paragraph (of news)
c. number of a program off-the-shelf
a. commercially available
b. ready to use
c. possible or likely
Упражнение 3. Заполните пропуски словами. А.
capacity as well laser information light existing advantage space doubt amplified cost conventional
Optical fibres are made of glass and use (1)... (usually from a (2)...) to transmit messages. There is no (3)... optical fibre systems have enormous (4)... over (5)... transmission systems. They have a much higher (6)... than copper wires, can carry much more (7)... and have a potentially lower material (8)... Besides, optical fibres occupy far less (9)... The quality of transmission is high (10)... The signal does not need to be (11)... as often as with (12)... cables. Optical fibres do not suffer from interference.
в.
heat treatment distance melt identify beams vaporize displays light communication
Nowadays, lasers are used to (1)... targets in military uses. In engineering, powerful laser (2)... can be focused on a small area. They can (3)..., (4)..., or (5)... material in a very precise way. Lasers are ideal for (6)... in space. Laser light can travel long (7)... without losing signal strength. In medicine, laser beams can be used for the (8)... of damaged tissue (ткань) in a fraction of a second without causing harm (вреда) to healthy tissue. In the arts, lasers can provide fantastic displays of (9)... Pop concerts are often accompanied by laser (10)...
Упражнение 4. Составьте возможные словосочетания глаголов из колонки А и существительных из колонки В.
|
А
1. come to
2. overcome / encounter
3. record / store / carry
4. realize
5. place
В
information, data, sound
into orbit
a project
reality
difficulties, differences
|
Упражнение 5. Заполните таблицу на словообразование.
Verb | Noun | Adjective |
identify | ... | ... |
|
| vaporous |
amplify | ... | — |
... | idealization | ... |
|
| strong |
| variety |
|
| ... | limitless |
— | precision | ... |
treat | ... | — |
Упражнение 6. А. Назовите 15—20 ключевых слов и словосочетаний на тему: «Laser applications».
В. Speak about:
Laser as a means of propulsion.
LESSON 11
Сложное подлежащее и сложное дополнение Значение слов either, neither и их сочетаний
Text 11А. Superconductivity Text 11В.
Text 11С. New Hope for Energy
Text 11D. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
ПРЕДТЕКСТОВЫЕ УПРАЖНЕНИЯ
Упражнение 1. Переведите предложения со сложным дополнением.
1. We know Morse to have been a painter by profession. 2. Scientists expect lasers to solve the problem of controlled thermonuclear reaction. 3. M. Faraday supposed a beam of light to reverse its polarization as it passed through a magnetized crystal. 4. Designers expect dirigibles to be used for exploration of new territories. 5. Japanese designers believe a new ceramic engine to replace the conventional one. 6 Engineers suppose a new «night vision» system to enable drivers to see better after dark. 7. Scientists believe new laser devices to be widely used in medicine. 8. We know the first digital optical disks to have been produced as disks for music. 9. They believed him to be capable.
Упражнение 2. Найдите инфинитив в предложениях, переведите.
А. 1. Hundreds of radio navigation stations watch the airplanes find their destination and land safely. 2. Twice a year people see birds fly south and north, but we don't know how they find their way. 3. At the Paris Exhibition people watched the cargo airplane «Ruslan» carry a great amount of cargo. 4. When you stand near a working engine you feel it vibrate. 5. Making experiments with electric telegraph Morse noticed a pencil make a wavy line when connected to an electric wire. 6. Nowadays people watch on television cosmonauts work in space, «Lunokhod» move on the surface of the Moon and Olympic games take place on the other side of the globe.
В. 1. A force applied to a body causes it to move in a straight line. 2. The unsatisfactory results of Bell's experiments forced him to change the method of testing. 3. The excellent properties of Damascus steel made metallurgists of the whole world look for the lost secret of the steel. 4. Very high temperatures often cause certain materials to break. 5. Bad weather conditions make pilots switch over to automatic control.
Упражнение 3. Обратите внимание на инфинитивный оборот, состоящий из предлога for, дополнения и инфинитива.
1. It was the only thing for us to do. 2. The students were waiting for the lecturer to describe the properties of a new composite material. 3. It is for you to decide which of the two methods to use. 4. It is necessary for the students to know the properties of various alloys. 5. A system of satellites is provided for people to watch the central TV program.
Упражнение 4. Переведите предложения со сложным подлежащим.
A. 1. Students of Cambridge are supposed to wear gowns at lectures. 2. The first pocket-size colour television sets were reported to have been developed. 3. Today's aircraft is expected to be replaced by a new model of hypersonic aircraft in a few years. 4. Intensive research on optical-electronic computer is said to be going on in a number of US companies. 5. A method for recording information on crystal by means of a laser is known to have been developed by a Russian researcher. 6. The annual output of personal computers is expected to reach millions in the near future. 7. The laser is known to be a device producing an intensive beam of light by amplifying radiation. 8. Optical technology has been found to be cost-effective. 9. The optical equivalent of a transistor is reported to have been produced.
B. 1. Our present-day life seems to be quite impossible without telephone, radio, and television. 2. Nowadays the principle of radio operation seems to be quite simple. 3. The term «radar» is known to be composed of the first letters of «radio, detection and ranging». It happens to reflect its basic principle, that is, the location of an object at a distance. 4. About 50 per cent of Lake Baikal water proved to have been polluted since the Baikal plant has begun its work.
5. Lasers appeared to be highly useful for solving the problem of controlled thermonuclear reaction and communication. 6. A system of Earth satellites appears to have solved the problem of transmitting the central TV program to any part of the world. 7. Electricity proved to be able to travel instantly over a long piece of wire.
С. 1. Dirigibles are likely to be used for taking tourists to distant and beautiful places. 2. Lasers are unlikely to be used in our everyday life soon. 3. Superconductivity is certain to bring about new discoveries in science and technology.
Упражнение 5. Прочитайте, запомните выделенные слова.
A.: Do you know what the words either and neither mean?
B.: Yes, I do. Either means каждый, любой, любой из двух, while neither stands for ни один, ни один (из).
A.: That's correct. Can you give examples?
B.: Yes I can. For example: There is a number of lecture rooms on either side of the corridor. Which of these dictionaries can be used for translating a technical article? You may use either.
A.: And in what way is either translated when it is used with or? For instance: «Please, bring some dictionaries either from the library or from the reading room.»
B.: Either... or... means либо... либо, или... или.
A.: Now let us speak about neither, it is the negative form of either, meaning ни тот... ни другой. For instance: I was offered two books, but I took neither of them, as I did not like them.
B.: And neither connected with nor means ни... ни, for example: These problems seemed difficult neither to my friend, nor to me.
A.: Are these words used in any other way?
B.: Yes, they may be used in short negative sentences such as: «I don't like this book», said Peter. «Neither do I», said Ann, which means мне тоже (не нравится). I shall not go to the library tomorrow. He won't go either. Он тоже (не пойдет).
Упражнение 6. Переведите, обращая внимание на разные значения слов тоге и much.
1. One more present-day complicated problem to be solved is that of combining laser and thermonuclear reaction to produce a practically limitless source of energy. 2. A Japanese company is planning to install several more electronic devices on the car instrument panel. 3. The Voice Warning System is one more electronic device. 4. If you make half-hour breaks while getting ready for your exams, your brain will work much more efficiently.
5. Aerodynamics is one more problem to be taken into consideration when designing a hypersonic craft. 6. The wheel-computerized system is much more efficient than those used previously. 7. Cryogenic fuels used both as coolant and propellant make the solution of the superliner surface cooling problem much easier to solve. 8. The fact that dirigibles are much larger in size and their staying power is much longer than those of an aircraft makes them ideally suited for exploration.
Упражнение 7. Найдите русские эквиваленты для словосочетаний.
the physics discoveries, discoveries that led to, the scientific advantage, advantage could well come to nation, to bring the mankind to, mercury wire, unexpected phenomenon, to return to normal state, by passing electric current, by applying magnetic field, to make a great contribution, they introduced a model, a model proved to be useful, a theory won for them the Nobel Prize, research in superconductivity, research became especially active, the achieved record of 23 K.
исследования особенно активизировались; исследования в области сверхпроводимости; теория, за которую они получили Нобелевскую премию; привести человечество к...; преимущество в науке; открытия в области физики; достигнутая рекордная отметка в 23 К; открытия, которые привели к...; преимущество могла бы получить нация (страна); ртутная проволока; вернуться в обычное состояние; пропуская электрический ток; внести большой вклад; неожиданное явление; они предложили (ввели) модель; прикладывая магнитное поле; модель оказалась эффективной.
Упражнение 8. Прочитайте и переведите интернациональные слова.
prestige [pres'ti^], nation ['neijen], Nobel prize [neu'bel praiz], absolute zero ['aebseluit 'ziereu], phenomenon [fi'nominen], normal, magnetic, electromagnetic, theory ['Gieri], theorists ['Qierists], fundamental theory, physics, physicist, model ['modi], metallic [ mi'taelik], ceramic [si'rasmik], colleagues ['koli:gz], laboratory, critical temperature, fabricate, extremely [iks'tri:mli], process ['preuses].
Упражнение 9. Прочитайте и запомните произношение слов:
latest ['leitist], spectacular [spek'taekjulo], breakthrough ['breik'Gru:], compare [кэт'реэ], award [9'wo:d], research [ri'se:tj"], mercury ['me:kjuri], wire ['waio], below [bilou], 5 °C ['faiv di'gri:z 'sentigreid], completely [kom'pliitli], return [ri'te:n], either ['ai&e], finally ['fainali], Zurich ['zjuorik], previously ['priivjasli], throughout [Qru:'aut], liquid ['likwid], nitrogen ['naitrodson], lose [lu:z], moreover [mo/rouvo], lack [laek].
СЛОВА И СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ ДЛЯ ЗАПОМИНАНИЯ
|
achievement п — достижение below adv — ниже, внизу benefit п — выгода, польза boil v — кипеть continue v — продолжать cool v — охлаждать current п — электрический ток
discover v — открывать, обнаруживать
finally adv — наконец introduce v — вводить lack v — нуждаться likely adv — вероятно lose v — терять master v — овладевать moreover adv — более того pass v — пропускать
present v — представлять previously adv — ранее, предварительно
prominent a — выдающийся, известный
random a — беспорядочный, случайный
resistivity n — удельное сопротивление
return v — возвращаться satisfactory a — приемлемый, удовлетворительный suddenly adv — вдруг, внезапно sufficiently adv — достаточно tend v — стремиться, иметь тенденцию wire n — провод
at once — сразу, немедленно Text 11A
Прочитайте текст. Расскажите об основных этапах развития сверхпроводимости и о тех ученых, которые внесли свой вклад в исследование сверхпроводимости.
Superconductivity
According to the prominent scientist in this country V.L. Ginz- burg the latest world achievements in the field of superconductivity mean a revolution in technology and industry. Recent spectacular breakthroughs1 in superconductors may be compared with the physics discoveries that led to electronics and nuclear power. They
are likely to bring the mankind to the threshold of a new technological age. Prestige, economic and military benefits could well come to the nation that first will master this new field of physics. Superconductors were once thought to be physically impossible. But in 1911 superconductivity was discovered by a Dutch physicist K. Onnes, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his low- temperature research. He found the electrical resistivity of a mercury wire to disappear suddenly when cooled below a temperature of 4 Kelvin (-269 °C). Absolute zero is known to be 0 K. This discovery was a completely unexpected phenomenon. He also discovered that a superconducting material can be returned to the normal state either by passing a sufficiently large current through it or by applying a sufficiently strong magnetic field to it. But at that time there was no theory to explain this.
For almost 50 years after K. Onnes' discovery theorists were unable to develop a fundamental theory of superconductivity. In 1950 physicists Landau and Ginzburg made a great contribution to the development of superconductivity theory. They introduced a model which proved to be useful in understanding electromagnetic properties of superconductors. Finally, in 1957 a satisfactory theory was presented by American physicists, which won for them in 1972 the Nobel Prize in physics. Research in superconductors became especially active since a discovery made in 1986 by IBM2 scientists in Zurich. They found a metallic ceramic compound to become a superconductor at a temperature well above3 the previously achieved record of 23 K.
It was difficult to believe it. However, in 1987 American physicist Paul Chu informed about a much more sensational discovery: he and his colleagues produced superconductivity at an unbelievable before temperature 98 К in a special ceramic material. At once in all leading laboratories throughout the world superconductors of critical temperature 100 К and higher (that is, above the boiling temperature of liquid nitrogen) were obtained. Thus, potential technical uses of high temperature superconductivity seemed to be possible and practical. Scientists have found a ceramic material that works at room temperature. But getting superconductors from the laboratory into production will be no easy task. While the new superconductors are easily made, their quality is often uneven. Some tend to break when produced, others lose their superconductivity within minutes or hours. All are extremely difficult to fabricate into wires. Moreover, scientists lack a full understanding of how ceramics become superconductors. This fact makes developing new substances largely a random process. This is likely to continue until theorists give a fuller explanation of how superconductivity is produced in new materials.
Notes to the Text
1. spectacular breakthroughs — захватывающие открытия, достижения (переворот)
2. IBM — компания Ай Би Эм
3. well above — намного выше
УПРАЖНЕНИЯ
Упражнение 10. Просмотрите текст 11А и ответьте на вопросы.
1. What is this text about? 2. What is the phenomenon of superconductivity? 3. Who was the first to discover the phenomenon? 4. What scientists do you know who have worked in the field of superconductivity? 5. What materials are the best superconductors? 6. Is it possible to return superconducting materials to the normal state? 7. How can it be done? 8. In what fields of science and technology can the phenomenon of superconductivity be used?
Упражнение 11. Укажите, какие утверждения соответствуют содержанию текста 11 А. Исправьте неправильные утверждения.
1. The latest achievements in superconductivity mean a revolution in technology and industry. 2. Superconductors were once thought to be physically impossible. 3. The achievements in superconductivity cannot be compared with the discoveries that led to electronics and nuclear power. 4. The electrical resistivity of a mercury wire disappears when cooled below 4 K. 5. A superconducting material cannot be returned to the normal state. 6. Landau and Ginzburg introduced a model which was useful in understanding electromagnetic properties of superconductors. 7. Scientists from IBM found a ceramic material that became a superconductor at a temperature of 23 K. 8. Potential technical uses of high temperature superconductivity are unlikely to be possible and practical.
Упражнение 12. Найдите в тексте 11А инфинитивные конструкции.
Упражнение 13. Сравните пары предложений, переведите.
1. Designers report a new manned craft to be able to submerge to the depth of 21,000 feet. A new manned craft is reported to be able to submerge to the depth of 21,000 feet. 2. We know radio navigation stations to be located at different places around the world to guide the pilots. Radio navigation stations are known to be located all over the world to guide the pilots. 3. People considered dirigibles to be too slow and unreliable, that is why they were not used for a long time. Dirigibles were considered to be slow and unreliable. 4. Experts expect the new submersible craft to move round the ocean floor like a sports car. The new submersible craft is expected to move round the ocean floor like a sports car. 5. Scientists in many countries consider propeller engines to be much more economical. Propeller engines are considered to be much more economical. 6. We know propeller planes to fly slower than jet planes, therefore, a new ventilator engine with a propeller has been built. But as propeller planes are known to fly slower than jet planes a new ventilator engine with a propeller has been built.
Упражнение 14. Найдите предложения со сложным подлежащим, переведите.
1. The phenomenon of superconductivity appears to have been discovered as early as 1911. 2. Before 1911 superconductivity was assumed to be impossible. 3. Recent discoveries in superconductivity made scientists look for new conducting materials and for practical applications of the phenomenon. 4. The latest achievements in the field of superconductivity are certain to make a revolution in technology and industry. 5. Recommendations from physicists will allow the necessary measures to be taken to protect the air from pollution. 6. Lasers are sure to do some jobs better and at much lower cost than other devices. 7. M. Faraday supposed a light beam to reverse its polarisation as it passed through a magnetised crystal. 8. Superconductors are likely to find applications we don't even think of at present. 9. A Dutch physicist found a superconducting material to return to normal state when a strong magnetic field was applied. 10. Properties of materials obtained in space prove to be much better than those produced on Earth. 11. There are prospects for lasers to be used in long distance communication and for transmission of energy to space stations. 12. The electrical resistivity of a mercury wire was found to disappear when cooled to —269 °C. 13. Additional radio transmitters let the pilot make his approach to an airport by watching his flight instruments. 14. There seems to be a lot of alloys and compounds that become superconductors under certain conditions.
УПРАЖНЕНИЯ ДЛЯ САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНОЙ РАБОТЫ
Упражнение 15. Определите, к какой части речи относятся слова.
resistant, resist, resistance, resistor, resistivity; superconductivity, superconductive, superconductor, superconducting; theory, theorist, theoretical, theorize; physics, physicist, physical, physically; explain, explainable, explanation; store, storage, storable.
Упражнение 16. Найдите русскому слову соответствующее английское.
достижение — achievable, achievement, achieve;
электронный — electronics, electronic, electron;
легче — easily, easy, easier;
удовлетворять — satisfy, satisfactory, satisfaction;
действительно — reality, realise, really.
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