В мои намерения не входит читать проповеди на тему ответственности социальных психологов. Лучше всего я представляю то, за что считаю ответственным себя самого. Говоря кратко, мой долг - распространять знания о том, как. можно использовать эти методы воздействия и как сохранять бдительность, не допуская злоупотреблений при их применении. И я чувствую эту ответственность, продолжая заниматься исследованиями, призванными расширить наши знания о нас - общественных животных, о том, как мы думаем и как ведем себя.
Если честно, я не знаю, какое еще занятие может быть интереснее или важнее этого.
Литература и комментарии
К главе 1 Что такое социальная психология?
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5. Michener, Kent State.
6. Ellen Berscheid; личное сообщение.
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К главе 2 Конформность
1. Copyright c 1933, 1961 by James Thurber. From <The day the dam broke>, in My life and hard times (New York: Harper, 1933), pp. 41, 47. (Впервые напечатано в: ^ New Yorker).
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II. Moulton, L., Blake, R., & Olmstead.J. (1956). The relationship between frequency of yielding and the disclosure of personal identity. Journal of Personality, 24, 339-347.
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15. Deutsch & Gerard, Normative and informational social influence.
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(1958). Influence as a function of perceived judgement error. Human Relations, II, 275-281. Wiesenthal, D., Endler, N., Coward, Т., & Edwards, J. (1976). Reversibility of relative competence as a determinant of conformity across different perceptual tasks. Representative Research in Social Psychology, 7, 35-43.
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22. Dittes, J., & Kelley, H. (1956). Effects of different conditions of acceptance upon conformity to group norms. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 53, 100-107.
23. Bushman, B.J. (1988). The effects of apparel on compliance: A field experiment with a female authority figure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 459-467.
24. Festinger, L. (1954). Atheory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.
25. Mullen, В., Cooper, С., & Driskell, J.E. (1990). Jaywalking as a function of model behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16 (2), 320-330.
26. Aronson, E., & O'Leary, M. (1982-83). The relative effectiveness of models and prompts on energy conservation: A field experiment in a shower room. Journal of Environmental Systems, 12, 219-224.
27. Cialdini, R.B., Reno, R.R., & Kallgren, C.A. (1990). Afocus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 1015-1029.
28. Ibid.
29. Schachter, S., & Singer, J. (1962). Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological Review, 69, 379-399.
30. James, W. (1890). Principles of psychology. New York: Smith.
31. Haney, C. (1984). Examining death qualification: Further analysis of the process effect. Law and Human Behavior, 8, 133-151.
32. Kelman, H. (1961). Processes of opinion change. Public Opinion Quarterly, 25, 57-78.
33. Kiesler, С., Zanna, M., & De Salvo, J. (1966). Deviation and conformity: Opinion change as a function of commitment, attraction, and presence of a deviate. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 458-467.
34. Vogler, R., Weissbach, Т., Compton, J., & Martin, G. (1977). Integrated behavior change techniques for problem drinkers in the community. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45, 267-279. Kuetner, С., Lichtenstein, E., andMees, H. (1968). Modification of smoking behavior: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 70, 520-533.
35. Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 371-378. Milgram, S. (1965). Some conditions of obedience and disobedience to authority. Human Relations, 18, 57-76. Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority. New York: Harper & Row.
36. Elms, A.C., & Milgram, S. (1966). Personality characteristics associated with obedience and defiance toward authoritative command. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 1, 282-289.
37. Kilham, W., & Mann, L. (1974). Level of destructive obedience as a function of transmitter and executant roles in the Milgram obedience paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 696-702. Shanab, M., & Yahya, K. (1977). Abehavio-ral study of obedience in children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 530-536. Miranda, KB., Caballero, R.B., Gome?., M.G.,&Zamorano, M.M. (1981). Obedience to authority. Psiqui^: Revista de Psiquiatria, Psicologiay Psicosomatica, 12, 212- 221. Mantell, D. (1971). The potential forviolence in Germany. Journal of Social Issues, 27, 101-112.
38. Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority. New York: Harper & Row. Sheridan, C., & King, R. (1972, August). Obedience to authority with an authentic victim. Paper presented at the convention of the American Psychological Association.
39. Milgram, S. (1965). Liberating effects of group pressure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 127-134.
40. Milgram, S. (1965), Some conditions of obedience and disobedience to authority. Human Relations, 18, 57-76.
41. Milgram, S. (1965). Liberating effects of group pressure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, /, 127-134.
42. Rosenthal, A.M. (1964), Thirty-eight witnesses. New York: McGraw-Hill.
43. Korte, C., & Kerr, N. (1975). Response to altruistic opportunities in urban and nonurban settings. Journal of Social Psychology, 95, 183-184. Rushton, J.P. (1978). Urban density and altruism: Helping strangers in a Canadian city, suburb, and small town. Psychological Reports, 43, 987-990.
44. Darley, J., Latane, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 377-383. Latane, В., & Darley, J. (1968). Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 215-221. Latane, В., & Rodin, J. (1969). A lady in distress: Inhibiting effects of friends and strangers on bystander intervention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 5,189-202.
45. Latane, В., & Nida, S. (1981). Ten years of research on group size and helping. Psychological Bulletin, 89,308-324.
46. Latane & Rodin, Lady in distress.
47. Darley & Latane, Bystander intervention.
48. Piliavin, 1., Rodin, J., & Piliavin, J. (1969). Good samaritanism: An underground phenomen? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 289-299.
49. Bickman, L. (1971). The effect of another bystander's ability to help on bystander intervention in an emergency. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7, 367-379. Bickman, L. (1972). Social influence and diffusion of responsibility in an emergency. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 8, 438-445.
50. Piliavin, J., & Piliavin, E. (1972). The effect of blood on reactions to a victim. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 23, 353-361.
51. Darley, J., & Batson, D. (1973). <From Jerusalem to Jericho>: A study of situational and dispositional variables in helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27,100-108.
52. dark III, R., & Word, L. (1972). Why don't bystander help? Because of ambiguity? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 392-400. Solomon, L.,
Solomon, ff., & Stone, R. (1978). Helping as a function of number of bystanders and ambiguity of emergency. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4, 318-321.
53. Baron, R.A. (1970). Magnitude of model's apparent pain and ability to aid the model as determinants of observer reaction time. Psychonomic Science, 21, 196-197.
54. Suedfeld, P., Bochner, S., & Wnek, D. (1972). Helper-sufferer similarity and a specific request for help: Bystander intervention during a peace demonstration. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 2,17-23.
К главе 3
Массовая коммуникация, пропаганда и процесс убеждения
1. АВС to air major nuclear war film. (1983, September). Report from Ground Zero, J(l), 1-2.
2. Schofield, J. W., & Pavelchak, M.A. (1989). Fallout from <The Day After>: The impact of a TV film on attitudes related to nuclear war. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19,433-448.
3. Newsweek, June 2, 1974, p. 79. O'Connor, J.J. (1974, March 10). They sell all kinds of drugs on television. The New York Times, p. D15.
4. Roberts, C. (1993). Special Report, National Public Radio, Morning Edition, September 3, 1993.
5. Mark Levy, цит. по: Time, October 1, 1979, p. 83.
6. Mann, P., & Iscoe, 1. (1971). Mass behavior and community organization: Reflections on a peaceful demonstration. American Psychologist, 26, 108-113,
7. St. Petersburg (Florida) Times, October 21, 1982. The (Nashville) Tennes-seean, October 31, 1982.
8. Newsbank, October 1982, Vol. 19, p. 1.
9.Phillips,D.P.,& Carstensen.L.L. (1986). Clustering of teenage suicides after television news stories about suicide. New England Journal of Medicine, 315, 685-689.
10. Phillips, D.P. (1979). Suicide, motor vehicle fatalities, and the mass media: Evidence toward a theory of suggestion. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 1150-1174.
II. McGinness, J. (1970). The selling of the president: 1968 (p. 160). New York: Pocket Books.
12. Lyle, J., & Hoffman, ff. (1971). Explorations in patterns of television viewing by preschool-age children. In J.P. Murray, E.A.Robinson, & G.A.Comstock (Eds.). Television and social behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 257-344). Rockville, MD: National Institutes of Health.
13. Lyle, J., & Hoffman, H. (1971). Children's use of television and other media. In J.P. Murray, E.A. Robinson, and G.M. Comstock (Eds.), Television and social behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 129-256). Rockville, MD: National Institutes of Health.
14. Bern, D. (1970). Beliefs, attitudes, and human affairs. Belmont, CA: Brooks/ Cole.
15. Zajonc, R. (1968). The attidudinal effects of mere exposure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Monograph Supplement, 9, 1-27.
16. Crush, J., McKeough, К., &Ahlering, R. (1978). Extrapolating laboratory exposure research to actual political elections. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 257-270.
17. Crush, J.E. (1980). Impact of candidate expenditures, regionality, and prior outcomes on the 1976 presidential primaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38,337-347.
18. White, J.E. (1988, November 14). Bush's most valuable player. Time, pp. 20-21.
19. Rosenthal, A. (1988, October 24). Foes accuse Bush campaign of inflaming racial tension. The New York Times, pp. Al, B5. Pandora's box (1988, October). The New Republic, pp. 4, 45.
20. Tolchin, M. (1988, October 12). Study says 53.000 get prison furloughs in '87, and few did harm. The New York Times, p. A23.
21. Pratkanis, A.R., & Aronson, E. (1992). The age of propaganda: The everyday use and abuse of persuasion. New York: W.H. Freeman.
22. Pratkanis, A.R. (1993). Propaganda and persuasion in the 1992 U.S. presidential election: What are the implications for a democracy? Current World Leaders, 36, 341-361.
23. Zimbardo, P., Ebbesen, E., & Maslach, C. (1977). Influencing attitudes and changing behavior (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
24. Petty, R.E., & Cacioppo, J.T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (pp. 123- 205). Hillside, NJ: Eribaum.
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26. Hovland, С., & Weiss, W. (1951). The influence of source credibility on communication effectiveness. Public Opinion Quarterly, 15, 635-650.
27. Aronson, E., & Golden, B. (1962). The effect of relevant and irrelevant aspects of communicator credibility on opinion change. Journal of Personality, 30, 135-146.
28. Walster(Hatfield), E., Aronson, E., & Abrahams, D. (1966). On increasing the persuasiveness of a low prestige communicator. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2,325-342.
29. Eagly, A., Wood, W., & Chaiken, S. (1978). Causal inferences about communicators and their effect on opinion change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 424-435.
30. Santa Cru^ Sentinel, January 13, 1987, p. A8.
31. Walster(Hatfield), E., & Festinger, L. (1962). The effectiveness of <overheard> persuasive communications. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 65, 395-402.
32. Mills, J., & Aronson, E. (1965). Opinion change as a function of communicator's attractiveness and desire to influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1,173-177.
33. Eagly, A., & Chaiken, S. (1975). An attribution analysis of the effect of communicator characteristics on opinion change: The case of communicator attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 136-144.
34. Hartmann, G. (1936). A field experience on the comparative effectiveness of <emotional> and <rational> political leaflets in determining election results. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 31, 336-352.
35. Leventhal, Н. (1970). Findings and theory in the study of fear communications. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 5, pp. 119- 186). New York: Academic Press.
36. Leventhal, Н., Meyer, D., & Neren^, D. (1980). The common sense representation of illness danger. In S. Rachman (Ed.), Contributions to medical psychology (Vol. 2). New York: Pergamon Press.
37. Time, February 16, 1987, pp. 50-53.
38. San Francisco Chronicle, June 19, 1987, p. 9.
39. Leishman, К. (1987, February). Heterosexuals and AIDS. The Atlantic Monthly, pp. 39-58.
40. Liberman, A., & Chaiken, S. (1992). Defensive processing of personally relevant health messages. Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 669-679.
41. dark III, R.D. (1990). The impact of AIDS on gender differences in willingness to engage in casual sex. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 771-782.
42. Leishman, К. (1987, February). The Atlantic Monthly. Heterosexuals and AIDS, p. 44.
43. Williams, S.S., Kimble, D.L., Cowell, N.H., Weiss, L.H., Newton, K.J., Fisher, J.D., & Fisher, W.A. (1992). College students use implicit personality theory instead of safe sex. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 921-933.
44. Hirschom, M. (1987, April 29). AIDS not seen as a major threat by heterosexuals on campuses. Chronicle of Higher Education.
45. Aronson, E. (1989). Excuses, excuses, excuses: Why sexually active college students do not use condoms. Invited address, meeting of the Western Psychological Association, 1989.
46. Aronson, E. (1991). How to persuade sexually active college students to use condoms. Invited address, meeting of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, California.
47. Nisbett, R., Borgida, E, Crandall, R., & Reed, Н. (1976). Popular introduction: Information is not always informative. In J.S. Carroll and J.W. Payne (Eds.), Cognition and social behavior^. 227-236). Hilisdale, NJ: Eribaum. Nisbett, R., & Ross, L.
(1980). Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Hamill, R., DeCamp Wllson, Т., & Nisbett, R. (1980). Insensiv-ity to sample bias: Generalizing from atypical cases. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 578-589. Шелли Тейлор, социальный психолог-когнитивист, утверждает, что эффект <яркости> не подтверждается большинством экспериментальных результатов. Обсуждение этой темы - см.: Taylor, S., & Thompson, S. (1982). Stalking the elusive <vividness> effect. Psychological Review, 89, 155-181.
48. Gonzales, M.H., Aronson, E., & Costanzo, M. (1988). Increasing the effectiveness of energy auditors: A field experiment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 1049- 1066.
49. Hovland, С., Lumsdain, A., & Sheffield, F. (1949). Experiments on mass communications. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
50. Miller, N., & Campbell, D. (1959). Recency and primacy in persuasion as a function of the timing of speeches and measurements. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59,1-9.
51. Zimbardo, P. (1960). Involvement and communication discrepancy as determinants of opinion conformity. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 60, 86-94.
52. Whittaker, J.O. (1963). Opinion change as a function of communication-attitude discrepancy. Psychological Reports, 13, 763-772.
53. Hovland, С., Harvey, O.J., & Sherif, M. (1957). Assimilation and contrast effects in reaction to communication and attitude change. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 55,244-252.
54. Aronson, E., Turner, J., & Carlsmith, J.M. (1963). Communication credibility and communication discrepancy as determinants of opinion change. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67,31-36.
55. Zellner, M. (1970). Self-esteem, reception, and influenceability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 87-93.
56. Janis, I.J., Kaye, D., & Kirschner, P. (1965). Facilitating effects of <eating-while-reading> on responsiveness to persuasive communication. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 181-186.
57. Hass, R.G., & Grady, K. (1975). Temporal delay, type of forewarning, and resistance to influence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, II, 459-469.
58. Freedman, J., & Sears, D. (1965). Warning, distraction, and resistance to influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 262-266.
59. Brehm, J. (1966). A Theory of Psychological Reactance. New York: Academic Press.
60. Bensley, L.S., & Wu, R. (1991). The role ofpsychological reactance in drinking following alcohol prevention messages. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 1111-1124.
61. Heilman, M. (1976). Oppositional behavior as a function of influence attempt intensity and retaliation threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 574- 578.
62. Petty, R., & Cacioppo, J. (1977). Forewarning, cognitive responding, and resistance to persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 645-655.
63. Festinger, L., & Maccoby, N. (1964). On resistance to persuasive communications. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68, 359-366.
64. Sloan, L., Love,R., & Ostrom, T. (1974). Political heckling: Who really loses? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 518-525.
65. McGuire, W., & Papageorgis, D. (1961). The relative efficacy ofvarious types of prior belief-defense in producing immunity against persuasion. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62, 327-337.
66. McAlister, A., Perry, С., Killen, J., Slinkard, L.A., & Maccoby, N. (1980). Pilot study of smoking, alcohol and drug abuse prevention. American Journal of Public Health, 70,719-721.
67. Pryor, В., & Steinfatt, W. (1978). The effects of initial belief level on inoculation theory and its proposed mechanisms. Human Communications Research, 4, 217-230.
68. Canon, L. (1964). Self-confidence and selective exposure to information. In L. Festinger (Ed.), Conflict, desision, and dissonance (pp. 83-96). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
69. TV violence for a new generation (1987). TV Monitor (p. 2). San Francisco: The Children's Television Resource and Education Center.
70. Статистика взята из: Pratkanis, A.R., & Aronson, E. (1992). Age of propaganda: The everyday use and abuse of persuasion. New York: W.H. Freeman.
71. Liebert, R. (1975, July 16). Testimony before the Subcommittee on Communications of the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce.
72. San Francisco Chronicle, August 25, 1979, p. 15. San Francisco Sunday Examiner and Chronicle, August 26, 1979, p. 2. San Jose Mercury-News, February II, 1982, p. A2.
73. Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorelli, N. (1986). Living with television: The dynamics of the cultivation process. In J. Bryant & D. Zillman (Eds.), Perspectives on media effects (pp. 17-40). Hilisdale, NJ: Eribaum.
74. Цит. по: Newsweek, December 6, 1982, p. 140.
75. Haney, С., & Manwlati, /.(1981). Television criminology: Network illusions of criminal justice realities. In Readings about the social animal (6th ed., pp. 120-131). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.
76. Hennigan, K., Heath, L., Wharton, J.D., DelRosario, M., Cook, Т., & Colder, B.
(1982). Impact of the introduction of television on crime in the United States: Empirical findings and theoretical implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 461-477.
77. Ronis,D.,Baumgardner, M., Leippe, M.,Cacioppo, J., & Greenwald, A. (1977). In search of reliable persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 548-569.
К главе 4 Социальное познание
1. Lippmann,W. (\911).Public opinion.^ew York: Harcourt, Brace, & Co.
2. Именно в те времена возник обычай, согласно которому мужчина должен был идти так, чтобы <прикрывать> женщину от проезжей части улицы. В эпоху средневековья подобный обычай казался вполне осмысленным: сапоги мужчины, если их забрызгает грязью, было легче отчистить, чем платье женщины.
3. Panati, С. (1987). Extraordinary origins of everyday things. New York: Harper & Row.
4. Gilovich, T. (1991). How we know what isn 't so. New York: Free Press.
5. Bentham, J. (1876/1948). A fragment on government and an introduction to the principles of morals and legislation.Oxford: Blackwell.Pyc.nep, - Избранные сочинения Иеремии Бентама. Т. 1. Спб., Русская книжная торговля. 1867, Современную версию <калькуляции блага> - см.: Fishbein, M., &.А^еп, J. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
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