5. Научный руководитель настаивает, чтобы мы представили работу через неделю.
6. Без электроники и кибернетики мы не могли бы решить многие важные проблемы.
UNIT NINETEEN
GRAMMAR: THE ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION
• Sentences to be translated.
1. An electron leaving the surface, the metal becomes positively charged.
2. A magnet is broken into two parts, each piece becoming a magnet with its own pair of poles.
3. All the liberated electrons having reached the anode, saturation occurs.
4. The temperature ofthe conductor being raised, the motion of electrons increases too.
5. The nucleus of an ordinary hydrogen atom consists of one proton, with one electron moving around it.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
question п. - вопрос, проблема
v. - сомневаться, ставить под вопрос in question — исследуемый, рассматриваемый, о котором идет речь
(syn. involved, concerned, in issue, in point) open to question - сомнительный, спорный beyond question — вне сомнения out of the question — не может быть и речи
• Sentences to be translated.
1. The substance in question contains traces of this element.
2. On logical grounds one might question this procedure.
3. The element in question can exist in two or more oxidation states.
4. The question arises of how closely these data presented the results obtained in practice.
5. Using this technique in such a case is out of the question.
READING (19A)
• Read the passage closely and follow the historical development of elementary particle physics. Interpret the title of the passage.
The Smallest of Objects Can Be Perceived Only with the Largest of Instruments
The large investment now being made in instruments for high-energy-physics research can be justified only because the preccdinggenerations of accelerators • have already proved their worth. Fifty years ago only two kinds of apparently indivisible particles were recognized: the electron and the proton. The remaining constituent of the atom, the neutron, was discovered in 1932. In subsequent years, through experiments with cosmic rays and with early accelerators, several additional particles were identified. One ofthe first was the positron, the antiparticle ofthe electron. Others were the neutrino, a particle without mass or electric charge, and the muon and the pion, which have masses intermediate between those ofthe electron and the proton.
In the 1950's, when more powerful accelerators began operating, there was an unexpected and in some respects alarming proliferation in the number of known particles. Within a few years the list extended to more than 100, most of them classified as hadrons, or nuclear particles. Among the hadrons were several with the new property of mattercalled strangeness. Later, it was necessary to add another class of hadrons, bearing another whimsically (прихотливо) named property, charm. The pace of discovery continued to increase. Particles that apparently signal the existence ofTwo more classes have been observed. These newest classes, which have only begun to be catalogued, are distinguished by properties called truth and beauty or top and bottom.
For a time it seemed that all of these particles might have to be accorded equal status as elementary objects. That possibility was deeply troubling, as it was difficult to reconcile with the conviction that the laws of nature should be reasonably simple. It was subsequently discovered, however, that all the hadrons could be arranged in logical patterns, some of which have a lovely snowflake form. Moreover, the existence of such patterns could be understood if it was assumed that the hadrons are not elementary but arc made up ofthe more fundamental entities, that have been given the name quarks.
In the view that now prevails among physicists there arc just two kinds of elementary particles: leptons and quarks. Among the leptonsthe most familiar particle is the electron. Also included in that class are the muon and two kinds of neutrino, one associated with the electron and one with muon. A few years ago a new lepton was discovered and given the designation tau. Presumably the tau also has an associated neutrino, so that there should be six leptons altogether.
There also appear to be six kinds of quarks, labeled up, down, strange, charmed, top and bottom. (As yet there is no experimental evidence forthe top quark, but because all the other quarks and leptons come in pairs it is assumed that the bottom quark also has a partner.) No one has observed a quark in isolation, but there are substantial reasons for believing in their existence. Every known hadron (and there-arc now a few hundred) can be explained as a combination of quarks or of quarks and antiquarks, formed by explicit rules.
• Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
доказали свою ценность; в последующие годы; в некоторых отношениях; темп открытий; различаются по существу; образованных по явным правилам
• Answer the following questions:
1. What is the main idea ofthe passage?
2. Why can we justify the large investments in accelerator technique development?
3. What can we say of the development pace in the field of elementary physics?
4. What makes scientists believe in quark existence?
CLASSWORK
READING (19B)
• Skim the passage rapidly and answer the question given in the title.
ARE THERE FINAL INDIVISIBLE CONSTITUENTS OF MATTER?
Our present-day knowledge of the constituents of matter is summarized in the scheme given below. This scheme in away replaces the periodic table ofthe elements ofthe chemists of the last century. Certainly, it seems to be simpler.
ЛИ the particles shown are fermions, i.e. they have spin 1/2. The implication is that for particles of each kind a conservation law exists, meaning that they cannot be produced as single particles but only in particle-antiparticle pairs. There are two classes of particles: the leptons, which do not feel the nuclear force, and the quarks, which do. *Anothcr major difference is that quarks have 1/3 charge, whereas leptons have integer electrical charges. The particles in the first line of the scheme differ from those in the second line by one unit in electric charge. The two particles in each column form a family as regards weak interactions in the sense that they can be transformed into each other. Thus, in weak processes a "u" quark can be transformed into a "d" quark and vice versa, or an electron into an electron neutrino, etc. The mass ofthe particles increases from left to right. Thus, besides the electron, a heavy electron which is usually called a muon is known, and a couple of years ago a super-heavy electron, the "t" particle, was detected. Each of these electron-like particles has its own neutrino. *Although experimental upper limits on the masses of the neutrinos are known, one ofthe most interesting problems is whether the masses of these neutrinos are exactly zero or not.
Originally, three quarks (u, d and s) were known, but in the seventies the charm quark and the beauty quark were discovered. *Because ofthe supposed symmetry between leptons and quarks most physicists are convinced that a sixth quark, the top quark, must exist. So far we do not understand the rules governing the masses of these particles; hence it is not possible to predict the mass of a top quark. *Fora certain time it was hoped that it could be produced with a powerful accelerator but it seems to be heavier than the available energy would permit us to detect. It could be found with the pp collider. Several theorists have speculated that quarks and leptons might not be the ultimate constituents, but that there might be a deeper layer of matter. They introduced even smaller particles (sometimes called rishons orhaplons) out of which both quarks and leptons can be composed.
The "periodic system" of elementary particles showing the two families, the quarks and the leptons, which are thought to be the fundamental constituents of matter. They are all fermions (spin equal to 1 /2) and their masses increase from left to right in the diagram. The "t" (top or truth) quark has not yet been found.
• Choose the proper word from the list below.
1. Quarks are the... elements ofthe proton, the neutron and other particles.
2. Scientists have discovered profound internal unity of electromagnetic and weak....
3. Whereas there is just one kind of electric..., there are three kinds of color....
4. The names of charges, of course, have nothing to do with... in everyday sense.
5. There arc eight... of the color force.
6. The most important... between QCD and QED is that the gluons carry a color charge, and the photon is neutral.
7. Quarks have not been seen yet in a free....
8. There is not enough energy to break interquark....
(binding, charge, constituent, state, color, difference, interaction, carriers)
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
1. All these elements are radioactive, their atoms being unstable and undergoing spontaneous disintegration.
2. When compared on the basis ofthe energy absorbed, all types of high energy radiation produce approximately similar effects on materials.
3. The conductivity depends on the numberof ions present, the substance being more ionized in dilute solution.
4. In radio receivers we usually amplify an input signal by a number of amplifier stages using pentode valves.
5. The pressure being reduced within the tube, certain remarkable phenomena occur.
6. Having applied a positive pulse of voltage to the control electrode, we made the valve conducting.
7. With the electrons being removed rapidly by the field, a space charge is left surrounding the anode.
2. Translate into English. Use Participles and participle constructions in your translation.
1. Используя ЭВМ для сших вычислений, они сэкономили (to save) мною времени.
2. Получив необходимую энергию, электроны ионизируютатомы.
3. Когда быстрая частица проникает сквозь слюдяное (mica) окошко, происходит ионизация.
4. Двигаясь к аноду, электроны могут сталкиваться с атомами или молекулами газа.
5. Когда он возбужден, атом испускает квант излучения.
6. После того как информация обработана, выходное устройство передает окончательный результат.
UNIT TWENTY
GRAMMAR: SHOULD В ПРИДАТОЧНЫХ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯХ
Should you see her, give her my regards.
Should it really be the case, please contact us.
Если вы увидите ее, передайте ей привет.
Если такое действительно случится, свяжитесь, пожалуйста, с нами.
Подобное использование should в начале придаточных предложений условия характерно для стиля научной прозы или деловых писем, ноне для разговорной речи.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
provide (for) — давать, обеспечивать (что-то), предусматривать, providewith — снабжать, обеспечивать (чем-то) provided (that), providing (вводит придаточное предлож.) — при условии (что); в случае, если (syn. given that)
• Sentences to be translated.
1. This is possible provided the reactor under consideration is not too small.
2. Provided one knows the rate of the emission, one can determine the range of the particles.
3. These terms may have arbitrary values providing equation (17) is satisfied.
4. Diode D2 provides a reference voltage against which the regulated output voltage is compared.
READING (20A)
• Read the passage. Search for the arguments to prove that a worldwide collaboration could minimize the world expenditures for scientific research into the structure of matter.
THE NEXT GENERATION OF PARTICLE ACCELERATORS
For some 60 years the effort to understand the ultimate structure of matter has proceeded almost entirely through a single experimental technique. A particle of matter is brought to high speed and made to strike another particle. From an examination ofthe debris released in the aftermath of the collision, information isgained about the nature of the particles and about the forces that act between them. To carry out a program of such experiments it is necessary to have a source of energetic particles. Cosmic rays provide a natural source, but the flux of particles is diffuse and is beyond the control ofthe experimenter. A more practical source is a particle accelerator, the device for increasing the speed of a particle and hence also its energy.
One of the first particle accelerators, built by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1928, was made of laboratory glassware a few inches in diameter. Most of the accelerators in service today are linear descendants of Lawrence's device, but they have grown enormously in size and complexity, the largest extending over many square kilometers. The particle accelerator is no longer an instrument installed in a laboratory; instead the laboratory is assembled around the accelerator. Building such a machine costs hundreds of millions of dollars; operating it requires a staff of about 1,000 people and dozens of digital computers.
A new generation of particle accelerators is now in prospect. The first few are just coming into operation; several more are under construction; others are still being planned, and their characteristics arc not yet fixed. For both, the physicist and the layman, the principal interest inspired by these new machines is in the results of the experiments they will make possible, but the accelerators themselves also merit notice. In the physics of elementary particles the highest available energy represents a frontier marking one of the boundaries of experimentally verifiable knowledge. Several ofthe new accelerators will be capable of attaining higher energies than any existing machine, and so they will push the frontier into unexplored territory. In order to reach those energies the accelerators will of necessity be larger, more complicated and more expensive than their predecessors.
Largely because ofthe cost, the construction of an accelerator today requires the resolution not only of technical problems but also of political, economic and managerial ones. Money for scientific research is a scarce resource, and it is imperative that it be used as efficiently as possible. Technical innovations have brought a substantial reduction in the cost per unit energy of accelerating a particle. It is encouraging to note that another means for minimizing the total world expenditure is now emerging: through international cooperation the unnecessary duplication of facilities can be avoided, and projects too large for any one nation can be undertaken by regional groups of nations and perhaps eventually through a worldwide collaboration such as * CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, which has its headquarters in Geneva. At present, its Member States arc Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Israel, Japan, the Russian Federation, the United States of America and Turkey.
• Re-read the passage carefully and explain how you understand the italicized words.
• Look through the passage and supply answers to the following questions.
1. By means of what experimental techniques is information gained about the structure of matter?
2. Why is an accelerator needed for investigating matter?
3. What modifications has the accelerator gone since its appearance in 1928?
4. What other problems besides technical should be taken into account in the construction of an accelerator?
• Reproduce the passage in English or in Russian.
CLASSWORK
READING (20B)
• Read the passages carefully and say why this discovery is of interest to physicists.
A) THE TROPHIES THAT WILL BE HUNTED WITH THE NEW ACCELERATORS
However much has been learned in the past 50 years, it would be misleading to suggest that the present understanding of elementary particles is even approaching finality or completion. The status ofthe field is tantalizing rather than satisfying1; there is no shortage of questions to be answered. A first order
... is tantalizing rather than satisfying — скорее заставляет испытывать танталовы муки, чем приносит удовлетворение of business for the new accelerators will be filling in the blanks in the catalogue of hadrons, particularly those that incorporate top and bottom quarks in their structure. It is also important to find out whether the list of quarks and leptons ends with the six of each that are now known or whether more will be found at higher energies. In a sense six quarks and six leptons are already too many; all ofthe ordinary matter in the universe could be constructed out ofjust four elementary particles: the electron, the electron neutrino and the up and down quarks. The existence of the other leptons and quarks, which appear only in high-energy-physics experiments, is a puzzle.
Another puzzle is the failure of all attempts so far to detect a free quark. Various theoretical constructs have been offered, after the fact, to explain why quarks should be permanently confined to hadrons. The possibility remains, however, that a quark can be knocked loose from a hadron if enough energy is supplied. Future experimental programs are therefore certain to include quark searches.
B) NEW STATE OF MATTER CREATED AT CERN
At a special seminar on 10 February, spokespersons from the experiments on CERN's Heavy Ion programme presented compelling evidence for the existence of a new state of matter in which quarks instead of being bound up into more complex particles such as protons and neutrons are liberated to roam freely.
Theory predicts that this state must have existed at about 10 microseconds after the Big Bang, before the formation of matter as we know it today, but until now it had not been confirmed experimentally. Our understanding of how the universe was created, which was previously unverified theory for any point in time before the formation of ordinary atomic nuclei, about three minutes after the Big Bang, has with these results now been experimentally tested back to a point only a few microseconds after the Big Bang.
Professor Luciano Maiani, CERN Director General, said: "Thecombined data com'mgfrom the seven experiments on CERN's Heavy Ion programme have given a clear picture of a new state of matter. This result verifies an important prediction of the present theory offundemental forces between quarks. It is also an important step forward in the understanding of the early evolution of the universe. We now have evidence of a new stale of matter where quarks and gluons are not confined. There is still an entirely new territory to be explored concerning the physical properties of quark-gluon matter. The challenge now passes to the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at the Brookhaven National Laboratory and later to CERN's Large Hadron Collider. "
The aim of CERN's Heavy Ion programme was to collide lead ions so as to create immensely high energy densities which would break down the forces which confined quarks inside more complex particles. A very high energy beam of lead ions (33 TeV) was accelerated in CERN's Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) and crashed into targets inside the seven different experimental detectors. The collisions created temperatures over 100 000 times as hot as the centre of the sun, and energy densities twenty times that of ordinary nuclear matter, densities which have never before been reached in laboratory experiments. The collected data from the experiments gives compelling evidence that a new state of matter has been created. This state of matter found in heavy ion collisions at the SPS features many of the characteristics ofthe theoretically predicted quark-gluon plasma, the primordial soup in which quarks and gluons existed before they clumped together as the universe cooled down.
The project is an excellent example of collaboration in physics research. Scientists from institutes in over twenty countries have participated in the experiments. The programme has also allowed a productive partnership to develop between high energy physicists and nuclear physicists. More importantly, this step forward has been made possible by the collaboration between the individual experiments. The picture of quark-gluon plasma resembles a jigsaw puzzle, with many pieces provided by the different experiments. The data from any one experiment is not enough to give the full picture but the combined results from all experiments agree and fit. Whereas all attempts to explain them using established particle interactions have failed, many of the observations are consistent with the predicted signatures of a quark-gluon plasma.
The results from CERN present strong incentive forthe future planned experiments. While all ofthe pieces ofthe puzzle seem to fit with a quark-gluon plasma explanation, it is essential to study this newly produced matter at higher and lower temperature in order to fully characterize its properties and definitively confirm the quark gluon plasma interpretation.
CERN Press Releases 2000
HOMEWORK
• Translate into Russian.
1. Should there be enough matter inside the Universe, it would close on itself and be finite.
2. Should there be any invisible matter in the Universe, the latter would make up the difference needed for the Universe to close.
3. Should neutrinos have a small mass, they could provide energy density to close the Universe.
4. Should there be any other presently unknown subatomic particles, the same might be true.
5. Should the Universe be finite, its expansion would eventually stop and be replaced by a contraction.
2. Translate into English. Begin each sentence with should.
Model: Если бы вы помогли мне, я был бы вам признателен. Should you help me, 1 would be thankful to you.
1. Если бы эта проблема обсуждалась на конференции, я выступил бы с докладом.
2. Если бы вы поверили нашему опыту, вы избежали бы многих затруднений.
3. Если бы вы провели наблюдения за температурами, результаты были бы совсем иными.
4. Если бы появились расхождения между нашими данными, мы могли бы обсудить их.
5. Если бы была разработана новая методика, вы могли бы воспользоваться ее преимуществами.
6. Если бы вы потерпели неудачу в испытаниях, мы могли бы помочь вам.
7. Если бы было достигнуто соглашение о совместной работе, мы могли бы гарантировать успех.
8. Если бы появились какие-то разногласия, мы могли бы их обсудить.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
TEXT 1
• The paper says that the 21 st century would be impossible without the computer. Do you think the same? What reasons does the author give in favour of his opinion? Read the passage below attentively and find all the facts in favour of the idea.
THE COMPUTER REVOLUTION
Without the computer space programs would be impossible and the 21st century would be impossible. The incredible technology we are building, the complexity and the knowledge we are amassing are all beyond the unaided mind and muscle of man. More than any other single invention, perhaps even more than wheel, the computer offers a promise so dazzling and a threat so awful that it will forever change the direction and meaning of our lives.
Computers today arc running our factories, planning our cities, teaching our children, and forecasting the possible futures we maybe heir to.
In the new age of exploration the computer is solving in milliseconds the problems a generation of mathematicians would need years to solve without its help. The small, fifty-ninc-pound computer, which takes up only one cubic foot of space in the vehicle will do all of the mathematics needed to solve one billion different space-manoeuvring, navigation, and re-entry problems. Moreover, it translates the answer into simple numbers and tells the astronaut the altitude to which he must bring the spacecraft before firing the thrustcrs, and indicates to him exactly how long they must be fired.
TEXT 2
• Read the passage below as fast as you can and say a few words about the computer applications mentioned in the text.
microfiche ['maikroufi(:)Jl n ииформ. микрофиша (карточка
с несколькими кадрами микрофильма) descendant/; потомок thief |Bi:f] п пор
COMPUTERS CONCERN YOU
When Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University, invented the first calculating machine in 1812 he could hardly have imagined the situation we find ourselves in today. Nearly everything wc do in the modern world is helped, or even controlled, by computers, the complicated descendants of his simple machine. Computers are being used more and more extensively in the world today, forthe simple reason that they arc far more efficient than human beings. They have much better memories and can store huge amounts of information, and they can do calculations in a fraction of the time taken by a human mathematician. No man alive can do 500,000 sums in one second, but an advanced computer can. In fact, computers can do many of the things wc do, but faster and better. They can pay wages, reserve seats on planes, control machines in factories, work out tomorrow's weather, and even play chess, write poetry, or compose music. Let's look now at some ofthe ways in which computers concern people in their daily lives and work.
Chief inspector Harston talks about ways in which computers can help the police fight crime. Members of the public often think of detective work as fast and exciting when most of it is slow and boring. For example, a detective on a stolen carcase may have to check through long lists of information, and in the time it takes him to do this the thief may well escape. With the new National Police Computer we are now able to find out details of car ownership and driving licences in a fraction of the time it takes by traditional methods. In police work speed is often essential, so computers are ideal for helping us catch criminals.
Many people associate computers with the world of science and maths, but they are also a great help to scholars in other subjects, in history, literature and so on. It's now possible for a scholar to find a book or article he needs very quickly, which, when a million or more new books are published each year, is quite an advantage. There's a system, controlled by computer, of giving books a code number, reducing them in size by putting them on microfiche, and then storing 3,000 or more in a container no biggerthan a washing machine. You tell the computer which subject you're interested in and it produces any microfiche you need in seconds. It's rather like going to an expert who has read all the works on your subject and can remember where to find the correct information, which few human experts can! There are also systems being developed to translate articles from foreign magazines by computer, and to make up the many lists of information that are needed in a modem library. So computers can help us to deal with the knowledge explosion in many ways.
• Skim the text and say what it is about.
• Find a suitable title to it.
Even before a rocket is launched, it is flown from ten to a hundred times through space-computer-simulated space — on flights constructed of mathematical symbols, on trajectories built of information bits, encountering hazards that are numbers without menace. For one ofthe computer's greatest assets is its ability to simulate one or a million variants of the same theme. "What if?" is the question the computer can answer accurately, swiftly, and over and over again. From this variety of possibilities, a trip from the earth to the moon can be simulated as often as necessary, with every possible trajectory plotted and every mile of the journey through space marked with symbolic signposts that will provide assurance that, mathematically at least, man has travelled this way before.
The computer can do far more than simulate the mechanics of space flight; it can furnish accurate models of life itself. In computer simulation, then, there may come the great breakthrough needed to convert the inexact social sciences — the studies of man as a social being — into exact science. For the sociologist the problem has always been the lack of an adequate yardstick by which to measure and count. The one absolutely essential tool of science is the measuring device. Anything that can be counted, measured, quantified, can be studied with scientific accuracy, Now it becomes possible to perform controlled experiments, in which every factor that goes in is known in advance and the answers that come out are then valid.
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