2. Translate into English.
1. Считают, что эти величины находятся в хорошем согласии с экспериментальными величинами.
2. По-видимому, высота остается одной и той же в течение всего периода времени.
3. Не наблюдалось, чтобы эти вещества обладали радиационными свойствами.
4. Оказывается, лазеры широко используются в медицине и в промышленности.
5. Маловероятно, чтобы он решил это уравнение.
6. Известно, что на движение электронов влияют эти столкновения.
7. Известно, что радиоактивность была случайно открыта в 1896году французским физиком Беккерелем.
UNIT THIRTEEN
GRAMMAR: GERUND
• Sentences to be translated.
1. The possibility of water being converted into ice is evident.
2. The teacher objected to our measuring this volume in advance.
3. There were other ways of applying high voltage.
4. The group couldn't help visiting the exhibition again.
5. The paper is worth(while) reading due to its importance.
6. The programmer worked very hard with the view to making the program intelligible.
7. Besides putting forward a new theory he succeeded in proving it experimentally.
8. Various methods of cooling transformers are used in practice.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
according to prep. (syn. in accord with, in accordance with) — согласно, в соответствии с
account/?. — описание, отчет; учет, принятие во внимание take into account (syn. take into consideration) — учитывать, принимать во внимание
give account of — объяснять, описать, охарактеризовать
take account of — учитывать
of no account — не имеющий значения
onaccountof — из-за, вследствие, на основании, по случаю
on no account — ни в коем случае
on this account — но этой причине, из-за, ввиду этого
to account for — объяснять, быть причиной, относить за счет
1. The earth's atmosphere exerts a pressure on account of its weight in the same way as liquids do.
2. Einstein's theory of light was put forward to account for the photoelectric effect.
3. The energy losses in a gaseous source arc to be taken into account.
4. This phenomenon is accounted for by the sudden rise of temperature.
5. Electromagnetic theory can give a satisfactory account ofthe transmission of light in transparent media.
6. No account was taken of relativistic electrons.
READING (13A)
• Read the passage carefully and explain the phenomenon of "phase change". Say why this phenomenon is of interest to physicists.
THE WORLD IS MADE OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
According to contemporary physicists, the world is made of several types of objects, collectively referred to as subatomic particles. (These particles can also be thought of as manifestations of something yet more fundamental, known as quantum fields.) There may be as many as I О89 identical copies of some of these particles in the present universe. The forms of matter familiar to us, both living and nonliving, on the earth and in the heavens, are all composed of various combinations of only three types of subatomic particles — protons, neutrons, and electrons. Dozens of other types of particles can be produced momentarily in the laboratory, however, and arc thought to have existed in large numbers in the early universe.
All subatomic particles are defined by a few qualities that they may possess, such as mass, spin, and electric charge. Two particles arc of the same type, if all of these qualities agree. Otherwise, they arc considered to be different particles. Particles of the same type are, as far as we know, truly identical in these properties of mass, spin, and charge rather than just very similar. If all photons, the particles that make up light, were not identical, lasers would not operate.
The subatomic particles readily convert into one another when they collide. The kinetic energy of motion of light particles can be converted into the energy associated with mass (rest energy) of heavy particles. In many cases, even isolated particles can convert spontaneously into others, if the latter are less massive. In all such transformations, only a few properties, such as the total electric charge, remain unchanged. The subatomic particles do not act like the changeless building blocks imagined by some Greek philosophers. In the last few years, physicists have realized that even those subatomic particles which exist have changed radically over the lifetime ofthe universe. It appears that evolution takes place on all levels of matter, not just on the more complex levels of living things. The driving force behind this evolution is the expansion ofthe universe, which by changing the environment in which particles are found, changes the particles themselves. Only twenty years ago, the idea that the properties of subatomic particles might depend on their environment would have been considered heresy. Nevertheless, there is now considerable theoretical support for this conclusion.
Under the conditions in which physicists usually observe subatomic particles, their defining properties are not perceived to vary, giving these properties an illusion of stability. However, under the immense temperatures and densities that prevailed in the early stages of the universe, the properties, such as mass, of some particles would have been very different from what they are now. This situation is related by nature to the variability of a liquid such as water. Under a fairly wide range of temperatures water remains liquid and its properties do not change much whatever the temperature within this range. But if the water is subjected to much lower temperatures, oris heated to above 100° Celsius, its properties change abruptly. The liquid becomes a solid (ice) ora gas (water vapour). This type of change, in which the properties of a substance change drastically as a result of a small variation in its environmental conditions, is called a "phase change" by physicists.
The presumed change in the properties of subatomic particles at very high temperatures is also considered to be a phase change, one that involves the properties of space, as well as ofthe particles in it. In other words, the particles do not react directly to a temperature change but to some alteration in space, (he medium, in which they find themselves.
It is easy to boil or freeze water, but very difficult to duplicate in the lab the extreme conditions present at the birth ofthe universe. Yet physicists have become convinced of the theory that atomic particles, and space itself, went through momentous phase changes during and after the Big Bang. The rapid cooling that followed that primordial explosion is thought to have generated several phase changes. After an incredibly short time (perhaps a microsecond), the subatomic stuff of the young universe became stabilized, combining into the particles that make up matter today.
• Look through the passage carefully and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
известные под общим названием; действительно (истинно); идентичные, а не просто схожие; фазовые превращения; энергия покоя; рассматривалась бы как ересь; огромные температуры; невероятно короткий период; субатомный материал
• For each word in A find in В its equivalent having roughly the same meaning.
A. 1. abrupt; 2. immense; 3. rapid; 4. incredible; 5. drastic; 6. to prevail;
7. to presume; 8. to perceive
B. a) quick; b) unlimited, immeasurable; c) very powerful; d) improbable,
impossible to believe; e) sudden and surprising; 0 to understand (see or
notice); g) to be most common or general; h) to suppose to be true
without proof
• Fill in the blanks with information taken from the text.
1. The world is made up of 10s4....
2. These subatomic particles have characteristic properties of..., and....
3. These particles can be converted into one another while....
4. Dozens of other types of particles can be produced only....
5. Scientists believe that other types of particles existed....
6. Under ordinary conditions subatomic particles are considered to be....
7. Under immense temperatures and densities ofthe Big Bang they might have undergone....
8. The Big Bang process might have lasted only....
• Read the passage again and find answers to the following questions.
1. What do contemporary physicists know for certain about matter?
2. What do physicists assume concerning the other types of subatomic particles?
3. Why do physicists insist on the identity ofthe particles?
4. What should happen ifthe particles were not identical?
5. What phenomenon do the physicists call "phase change"?
6. What examples of phase changes could you give?
7. Could subatomic particles experience phase changes?
8. Under what conditions could they have experienced phase changes?
• Think and say a few words about:
a) Big Bang and subatomic world;
b) the matter makeup;
c) phase changes in everyday life and in subatomic world;
d) laboratory experimentation with subatomic particles.
CLASS WORK
READING (13B)
• The problem of the passage below is illustrated in a block-scheme. Look at it and say what you know about the problem. Then, read the passage and find the facts to prove or disprove your ideas.
The Universe
quarks/gluons |
 | |||
 | |||
------ > | field | ----) |
<----- |
|
proton/neutron
PARTICLES AND FIELDS
The number of the particles of each type in the present universe is the result of a complicated history. Most ofthe particle types that were abundant in the early universe have long ago disappeared. We only observe them when they are produced briefly in laboratories, and then annihilate or decay. Because of this we are uncertain of how many particle types may exist.
In the present universe, quarks and electrons have properties that allow them to form the tightly bound clusters that we call nuclei and atoms. Photons and neutrinos cannot do this, and so exist much more diffusely throughout the universe.
Nevertheless, most of the universe we know is made of quarks and electrons, and the present picture we have of the world is largely an expression of the properties of these particles. Of the two, quarks have a greater tendency to cluster together. Indeed, this tendency is so pronounced that most physicists believe that quarks are never found in isolation, but only in combinations containing either three quarks or one quark and one antiquark. These are the combinations that make up most of the subatomic particles that we observe, such as protons and neutrons, the particles found in the nuclei of atoms.
The reasons why quarks insist on clustering in this way are not completely understood. There is a general theory, known as quantum chromodynamics (QCD) that attempts to describe how quarks behave. QCD involves the interactions of fields associated with quarks and fields associated with another type of particle called gluons (so named because they bind the quarks together). Most physicists believe that when the predictions of this theory are better understood, we will know why quarks cluster as they do.
Ever since the first microsecond after the origin of the universe, quarks have been bound together, in groups of three, into neutrons or protons. All of the other combinations of quarks or the other quark types, which also can bind together, are unstable under present conditions. That is, if they are produced, they change spontaneously into less massive particles, and eventually into some combination of the stable ones. Even neutrons are unstable when they are found in isolation — as when they arc produced in nuclear reactors — and decay into protons in a few minutes. The reason that neutrons exist at all in the present universe is that when given the chance they bind together into more complex and lasting objects. Neutrons can bind with protons into atomic nuclei, and with one another in immense numbers into neutron stars.
Electrons also bind with nuclei and with each other into the combinations that we know as atoms and molecules. This binding occurs through electric and magnetic forces, which are manifestations of the same quantum field whose particle aspect is the photon. The detailed properties of this field arc summarized in a theory known as quantum electrodynamics (QED), the most widely tested theory in quantum physics. No inaccuracies have been found in the theory, down to a level of error of less than one part in a billion.
Most physicists believe, on the basis of theoretical arguments, that even protons and bound neutrons are not really stable, and that over sufficiently long periods of time they decay into electrons or neutrinos. Such decays have not yet been observed, although experimental searches are underway. The time period over which this is thought to occur is 1031 years or more, so that few of the protons and neutrons produced in the early universe would have decayed yet in this way. However, by looking at matter containing thousands of tons of protons, a few proton decays should be seen in a year. According to this theory, ifthe universe continues to expand for another 1031 years or more, matter as we know it will have disappeared. The era in which the universe is dominated by the matter familiar to us will be very long by human and by galactic standards, but it may still be just an instant in the whole history ofthe universe.
• Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
современная вселенная; во всей вселенной; сложная история; из-за этого; плотно связанные; выражение свойств; тенденция столь ярко выражена; зарождение (возникновение) вселенной; они спонтанно превращаются в...; через достаточно долгий период времени; экспериментальные исследования ведутся; всеголишь мгновение; стремятся сгруппироваться
• Fill in the blanks with information from the text or from any other source.
1. The matter of the universe is made up of....
2. The general theory describing the behaviour of quarks is....
3. The QCD involves the interaction of... and....
4. Protons and neutrons arc made up of....
5. The subatorhic particles existing in the universe diffusely are... and....
6. Neutrons can bind with one another into....
7. QED involves the binding of... and... into....
8. The subatomic particles never found in isolation arc....
• Choose the facts from the list below which you could consider as well-established by science. Give reasons for your choice.
1. The number of distinct particle types in nature.
2. Photonsand neutrinos cannot cluster.
3. Most matter of the universe is made up of quarks and electrons.
4. Electron is indivisible.
5. Quarks cannot be found in isolation.
6. Neutrons are unstable.
7. Protons are unstable.
8. Neutrons can bind with one another.
9. Quarks can bind with one another.
• Think and say a few words about:
a) distinct particle types known in nature;
b) the nature of quarks;
c) QCD and QED theories;
d) protons and neutrons, their present and future.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
The Properties of Space
How is it possible for space to change, if space is conceived of as nothing at all? Actually, physicists no longer think of space in that way. Einstein, in his general theory of relativity, following up on the work ofthe nineteenth-century mathematicians Bernhard Riemann and William Clifford, asserted that the properties of any region of space depend considerably on the presence and form of matter nearby. For example, the space near the sun is distorted in its geometrical properties; it "curves" because ofthe star's great mass. A triangle drawn by intersecting light rays near the sun would not obey the rules of Euclidean geometry, its angles would not add up to 180 degrees. It is this distortion of space and a related change in the way time passes that earlier physicists identified as the force of gravity, and which in Einstein's theory leads to the motion of the planets in orbits around the sun.
2. Translate into English. Use the Gerund forms.
1. Стоит обсудить проблему субатомных частиц подробно.
2. Мы не можем не попытаться дать определение этим понятиям.
3. Не стоит повторять эти измерения без высокочувствительною прибора.
4. Нельзя не признать ценность этих исследований.
5. Не имеет смысла (не стоит) перечислять все достоинства этой работы.
6. Стоит учесть все недостатки этой работы.
Part IV.
MODERN DISCOVERIES, THEORIES AND TECHNOLOGIES
UNIT FOURTEEN
GRAMMAR: МЕСТОИМЕНИЕ ONE
Модальные глаголы must, have, should, ought, may, can, might теряют ciioи оттенки значений и переводятся практически одинаково. Местоимение one не переводится.
One must i |
| One can | можно |
One has to | следует, нужно, | One may |
|
One should | необходимо | One might | можно было бы |
|
| ||
One ought |
| One could |
|
• Complete the sentences.
1. One must remember that...
2. One has to assume that...
3. One should emphasize that...
4. One ought to bear in mind that...
5. One can see that...
6. One may note that...
7. One might expect that...
8. If it were so, one could conclude that...
• Translate the following sentences. Pay special attention to: • one as the subject of a sentence.
Model 1: One could expect the value to change.
Можно было бы ожидать, что эта величина изменится.
1. One could think that this is an attractive problem.
2. One should understand, however, that the problem is extremely difficult.
3. One often wonders how he could avoid these difficulties.
4. One should remember, however, that they are unavoidable.
5. One must think of another approach to solving the problem.
• one as a substitute for a previously mentioned noun.
Model 2: Have you developed any procedures? We need an effective one.
Вы разработали какие-то процедуры? Нам нужна эффективная (процедура).
1. We can advise you several procedures, but this is the most reliable one.
2. The old methods of investigation are regarded as inadequate ones.
3. The newly developed technique has certain advantages over the old ones.
4. Could you name any problems as fundamental ones?
5. 1 could name the role of the DNA in genetics as the most challenging one.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
gain п. - усиление, коэффициент усиления v. - получать
1. The experience gained enabled the planning of vast expansion.
2. The loop gain is so much reduced that the high-frequency oscillation is unable to start.
3. The amplifiergain can be increased by the feedback method.
READING (14A)
• Read the passage attentively and be prepared to discuss its plot according to the following outline:
1. The phenomenon of superconductivity.
2. The conditions of superconductivity.
3. Possible practical uses of superconductivity.
SUPERCONDUCTORS
The Startling Breakthrough That Could Change Our World
That discovery, most scientists believe, could lead to incredible savings in energy: trains that speed across the countryside at hundreds of miles per hour on a cushion of magnetism, practical electric cars, powerful yet smaller computers and particle accelerators, safer reactors operating on nuclear fusion rather than fission and a host of other rewards still undreamed of.
Superconductivity is aptly named. It involves a remarkable transition that occurs in many metals when they arc cooled to temperatures within several degrees of absolute zero, or, as scientists prefer to designate it, 0 Kelvin. Absolute zero equivalent to —460°F or -273°C, represents a total absence of heat; it is the coldest temperature conceivable. As the metals approach this frigid limit, they suddenly lose all their electrical resistance and become superconductors. This enables them to carry currents without the loss of any energy and in some cases to generate immensely powerful magnetic fields. Scientists have recognized for years that the implications of this phenomenon could be enormous, but one stubborn obstacle has stood in their way: reaching and maintaining the temperatures necessary for superconductivity in these metals is difficult and in most instances prohibitively expensive.
From the time that a Dutch physicist Kamerlingh Onnes discovered superconductivity in 1911 until the recent rush of breakthroughs, there was only one way to produce the phenomenon: by bathing the appropriate metals — and later, certain metallic alloys — in liquid helium.
This exotic substance is produced by lowering the temperature of rare and costly helium gas to 4.2K (—452°F), at which point it liquefies. But the process is expensive and requires considerable energy. Furthermore, unless the liquid helium is tightly sealed in a heavily insulated container it quickly warms and vaporises away. Thus, the practical use of superconductors has been limited to a few devices — an experimental Japanese magnetically levitated train, a few giant particle accelerators and medicine's magneticresonancc imaging machines that operate with intense magnetic fields.
But in the last few years physicists have stumbled on unusual cases of ceramic compounds that change everything. They also must be cooled to become superconductors but only to a temperature of 98 К (—283°F) and that suddenly brings superconductivity into the range ofthe practical: liquid helium can be replaced as a coolant by liquid nitrogen, which makes the transition from a gas at the easily produced temperature of 77 К (—320°F). Moreover, liquid nitrogen is cheaper than milk and so longlasting that scientists carry it around in ordinary thermos bottles. Also, the ceramics may be able to generate even more intense magnetic fields than metallic superconductors.
Thus, if these new substances can be turned into practical devices — and most scientists believe they can — technology will be transformed.
• For each word in column 1 find its synonymous phrase or word in column 11.
Model: (in most) instances — in most cases
I
heavily (insulated) tightly (sealed) immensely (powerful fields) prohibitively (expensive) startling (breakthrough) incredible (savings) remarkable (transitions) (the coldest) conceivable
(temperature) frigid (limit) stubborn (obstacle)
II
that can be imagined
not easy to control or deal with
exclusively, forbiddingly
uncommon; of unusual quality
intensely cold
impossible to be believed
surprising
not leaky
severely immeasurably
• Match each word in column I with its antonymous phrase or word in column II.
I II
exotic cheap
rare very common
expensive easy to control or deal with
safe dangerous
stubborn usual or colourless
• Look through the passage and fill in the blanks with the proper information.
1. The coldest conceivable temperature equals... and is called....
2. Absolute zero represents a total absence of....
3. When some metals are cooled to absolute zero they lose... and become
4. In the past, reaching and maintaining absolute zero temperatures was prohibitively... because the process required....
5. With the discovery of... superconductivity has become almost practical.
6. As a coolant liquid helium can be replaced by....
7. If the technology of superconductors is improved, they could be turned into practical devices such as....
• Look through the passage and answer the following questions.
1. What is superconductivity?
2. How old is the discovery of superconductivity?
3. What conditions enable some metals to become superconducting?
4. How can these conditions be provided?
5. Why has superconductivity not become widely used in practice?
6. What laterdevelopmcnts have brought superconductivity into the range of practical use?
7. What properties make liquid nitrogen more attractive as a coolant than liquid helium?
8. What fields of superconductor application could you name?
CLASS WORK
READING (14B)
• Skim the passage carefully (3 min), define the main idea of the passage and give a headline to it.
In terms of the social impact superconductivity could well be the breakthrough of the 1980s in the sense that the transistor was the breakthrough ofthe 1950s. Indeed, scientists hardly know where to start in describing the bonanza that superconductors could yield.
Take the transmission of electricity, for example. As much as 20% ofthe energy sent through high-tension lines is now lost in the form of heat generated as the current encounters resistance in the copper wire. If the electricity could be sent through superconducting cable, however, not a kilowatt-second of energy would be lost, thus saving the utilities, and presumably consumers, billions of dollars. Furthermore, at least in theory, all of a large city's electrical energy needs could be supplied through a handful of underground cables.
Elimination of heat caused by electrical resistance could have ^profound effect on the design and performance of computers. In their efforts to produce smaller and faster computers, designers try to cram more and more circuits into chips and ever more chips into a tiny space. But they are limited in their scaling down endeavors by heat: even the tiny currents in computer circuits generate enough cumulative heat to damage components if they are too tightly packed. Today's personal computers could not operate without vents or internal fans to dissipate the heat. Now, with practical superconducting circuitry on the horizon, computer designers may soon see the way clear for even more remarkable miniturization.
In still othcrapplications, the intense magnetic fields that might some day be generated by the new superconductors should benefit any device that now uses electromagnctism in its operation — medical diagnostic imaging machines, magnetically levitated trains, fusion-energy generators — and will undoubtedely spawn a host of new machines. Electric motors could increase in power and shrink in size.
• Explain how you understand the italicized words in the passage.
• Look through the passage again and choose all potential Fields of superconductor applications in practice.
• Think and say a few words about the problem as a whole.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
High-temperature Superconductors
The new HTSCs arc mixed oxides that display the mechanical and physical properties of ceramics. A key to the behaviour of the new..- 'crials appears to be the presence of planes containing copper (Cu) and • gen (O) atoms, chemically bonded to each other. The special nature of the copper-oxygen chemical bonding gives rise to materials that conduct electricity well in some directions in contrast to the majority of ceramics whic'i are electrically insulating.
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