Language – is a structured system of signs used for forming, storing & exchanging information in the process of human communication. Semantics – deals with the relations between the signs &

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Language – is a structured system of signs used for forming, storing & exchanging information in the process of human communication. Semantics – deals with the relations between the signs & what they name (objects) & signify (concepts). Pragmatics - deals with the relations between the signs & its users, i.e. human being. Syntactics – deals with the relations between language units. A level (of language) – is a subsystem of language which presents a totality of homogeneous units & a set of rules regulating their use & classification. Morphemes are decomposed into phonemes, words are decomposed into morphemes, phrases are decomposed into words, etc.

Level Unit Function

Phonemic Phoneme – a speech sound that distinguishes one word from another, e.g. the sounds "d" and "t" in the words "bid" and "bit." Differentiates between meanings.

Morphemic Morpheme - is the smallest indivisible meaningful language unit within the structure of the word. It is two-facet language unit ‘cause it has a certain meaning & a certain sound-pattern, but it can occur (unlike a word) only as a constituent part of the word. -Expresses meanings. [M. may present a combination of two or more phonemes, but may be presented by one cats]. =To build grammatical forms & express grammatical meanings (formbuilding M.) =To derive new Ws & express new lexical meanings.

Lexemic Word – is the smallest significant unit of a given language capable of functioning alone & characterized by positional mobility within a sentence, morphological uninterruptability & semantic integrity. It’s a two-facet unit ‘cause it possesses both: sound form & meaning (content). Nominating function /to give names to various objects of reality/.

Phrasemic Phrase – is a group of two or more syntactically related notional words within the structure of the sentence based on certain grammatical relations between its components, which itself is not a sentence. Enriches the nominative potential of the language.

Sentential (proposemic) Sentence – is a group of words based on predicative relations which expresses a complete thought about an event of reality & is used with a certain communicative aim. Communicative

Dictemic (text level) Text – is a complex syntactic unity of sentences based on the structural, semantic & communicative cohesion. Product of speech activities, communicative.

phonemic-lexemic: warm – ward – card – cord – cold /change of the phoneme results in change of WM/ a present – to present, a record – to record, an increase – to increase.

phonemic-syntactic: a statement can be changed into a question without changing the WO (intonation, logical stress, pauses Учительница/50 лет/ ищет работу гувернантки).

lexical-grammatical: try to concentrate, try growing, try & behave (gr. – lex.); She’s havin’ a party now/ She’s havin’ a party tomorrow.

Функции языка – коммуникативная (установление и поддержание контакта – Hi, Hello); когнитивная (познавательная – отражение окружающего мира); функция формулирования и оформления мысли; аппеляционная (призывающая – Excuse me!); регулятивная (Keep Out! No Smokin’!); номинативная (назывательная); конативная (реклама); предикативная (соотношение информации с действительностью).

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1. English is a very flexible language, which is the result of a loss of many grammatical inflexions in the course of its historical development. Many words in English have a simple morphological structure and no special part of speech markers. And therefor can be used in many positions within the sentence (Ex. ROUND- Let’s round a conversation. They have another round of talk. His face was round. He suddenly turned round. They live just round the corner). Due to morphological simplicity many words in English are easily converted from one pat of speech to another (Ex. –Darling! –Don’t darling me).

2. Fixed WO (Subj. – V – Obj.), preposition ends the sentence.

3. Polysemy & homonymy

4. Subject-prominent language (each sentence even a dummy one must have a Subj.)

5. Predominantly analytical character & a limited number of inflexions (most of the tense forms are of analytical character)

6. Tendency towards nominalization Make a guess! Let me have a say! She made a little nod.

7. Wide-spread usage of non-finite forms => 2ndary predication I never saw him look like this (in Russian it’ll be a complex sentence).

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Morpheme - the smallest indivisible meaningful language unit within the structure of the word; has a certain M & sound-pattern, but it can occur only as a constituent part of the W// It may be larger than a W in case of analytical forms of Ws. Allomorph – is phonetic & graphical variants of the morpheme. e.g. please [плиз], pleasant [плез], pleasure[плеж]. They are allomorphs of one & the same morpheme.// "-ed" and "-t" both form the English past tense and are allomorphs.// -z (boys), -s (cats), -iz (classes), -en (oxen), -ren (children), -0 (bison). In traditional grammar the study of the morphemic structure of the word was conducted in the light of the two basic criteria: positional (the location of the marginal morphemes in relation to the central ones) and semantic or functional (the correlative contribution of the morphemes to the general meaning of the word). In accord with the traditional classification, morphemes on the upper level are divided into root-morphemes (roots) and affixal morphemes (affixes). The roots express the concrete, "material" part of the meaning of the word, while the affixes express the specificational part of the meaning of the word, the specifications being of lexico-semantic and grammatico-semantic character. The roots of notional words are classical lexical morphemes. The affixal morphemes include prefixes, suffixes, and inflexions (in the tradition of the English school grammatical inflexions are commonly referred to as "suffixes"). Of these, prefixes and lexical suffixes have word-building functions, together with the root they form the stem of the word; inflexions (grammatical suffixes) express different morphological categories. The root, according to the positional content of the term (i.e. the border-area between prefixes and suffixes), is obligatory for any word, while affixes are not obligatory. Therefore one and the same morphemic segment of functional (i.e. non-notional) status, depending on various morphemic environments, can in principle be used now as an affix (mostly, a prefix), now as a root. Cf.: out — a root-word (preposition, adverb, verbal postposition, adjective, noun, verb); throughout — a composite word, in which -out serves as one of the roots (the categorial status of the meaning of both morphemes is the same); outing — a two-morpheme word, in which out is a root, and -ing is a suffix; outlook, outline, outrage, out-talk, etc. — words, in which out- serves as a prefix; look-out, knock-out, shut-out, time-out, etc. — words (nouns), in which -out serves as a suffix. Grammatical morpheme doesn’t appear isolated, it forms a grammeme (word-form).

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Grammatical meaning – general abstract meaning which unites classes of forms or words & finds its expression through formal markers thus placing a linguistic unit in a grammatical category or grammatical class of words. LM/GM – 1)more general & abstract He fell down & broke his leg - Two hours ago, yesterday, last week), lexical means specify the utterance; 2) the function in the language (the function of the lexical system of the language is to represent the conceptual contents and the function of the grammatical system is to represent the conceptual structure, i.e. the arrangement of concepts);. 3) the degree of autonomy (LMs are autonomous whereas GMs, meanings are not and they find their expression only in combination with LMs Waggles ugged Diggles); 4) an obligatory/nonobligatory character (have a regular and an obligatory character in the language. We cannot use a notional word without expressing its grammatical meaning/meanings It has been raining for hours – rain = person, number, tense, aspect, time correlation, voice, and mood). GMs are not always explicitly expressed in the language, they may be implicit. We have three questions to discuss today (Z must be discussed). Interaction (GM/LM): Grammaticalization – a process when word loses its lexical meaning & becomes auxiliary word that carries only a grammatical function. to be going to – loses the lexical meaning of intention & expresses pure futurity (half-analytical); to get + P II. Lexicalization of the GM – the process of acquiring a new lexical meaning by grammatical means. custom (обычай) - customs (таможня), (Farewell to Arms – creates ambiguity).

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Grammatical form – a means of expression a GM. There are several types of form-building in English. The main subdivision of form-building types is into synthetical and analytical In a synthetical type a GM is expressed within a word, in an analytical type a grammatical GM is expressed with the help of auxiliary words (plus suffixes). The synthetical types of form-building in English include affixation (reads, shown, books, theirs etc.), sound interchange (take - took, shine - shone) and suppletivity (go - went, be - was, good - better - best). The only productive type in the present-day English is affixation, but the other two types are no less important, if only because they occur in words which are most frequently used. The analytical type of formbuilding occupies a very important place in the grammatical structure of English as the language has evolutionized from being mainly synthetical to becoming more and more analytical, and analytical tendencies in the present day English are very strong. There exist the so-called half-analytical structures (e.g. be going - to Inf., get + P II) and the analytical tendencies find their reflection in many spheres of the language. Thus, the habit of expressing lexical and grammatical meanings separately finds its reflection in the fact that very often speakers of English express adverbial meanings not with the help of adverbs but with the help of adverbial phrases Adj. -way where the component way serves as a marker of the adverbial meaning, i.e. fulfils the function of an adverbializer, e.g. Let's do it (in) a different way. Such structures are sometimes referred to as analytical adverbs.

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Grammatical category – is a relational unit which specifies the meaningful relations between grammatical forms constituting the peculiar, purely native structure of a language; unity of GM & GF, a system of expressing a generalized GM by means of paradigmatical correlations of GFs (tense, voice, aspect, person, case, number, mood, time correlation). The forms united into a GC possess a common general meaning that gives a name to the category and each form possesses its own specific meaning that presents a specification of the general meaning and differentiates the form from the other form/forms within the category. E.g., the forms lives- lived—will live are united on the basis of the common general GM of tense and constitute the GC of tense. Within this category each form has its own specific meaning of tense: present, past and future. Most of the GCs express different relations between phenomena of reality reflected in our minds in the form of concepts and therefore they are conceptual in their nature (inherent): the GC of tense presents a specific lingual expression of objective (ontological) time, the GC of case presents various relations between the action and its participants, the GC of number in nouns reflects the quantitative relations between homogeneous objects of reality, the GC of mood presents the relations between the action and reality as they are presented by the speaker etc. Conceptual GCs are universal, they exist in most of the languages though their volume and their scope may vary considerably in various languages. The GC of number is the most universal GC (in all speech communities). GC is constituted on the basis of contrastive GFs which share a certain GM correlated to some general concept (time, number etc.) and differ in more concrete meanings within the scope of the same concept. Such contrastive grammatical forms are called oppositions and all grammatical GC are based on ‘em. The method of oppositional analysis was introduced by N. Trubetskoy who applied it to the study of phonemes. Oppositions the number of the members (binary, ternary, quaternary & polynominal); the character of relations between their members (privative, equipollent and gradual). The members of a privative opposition are characterized by the presence or absence of one and the same feature (+A:: - A). The member that possesses the feature of the opposition is called the strong, or the marked member and the other member is referred to as the weak, or the unmarked one. //Interaction GM/LM: neutralization and transposition. In certain contextual conditions an opposition can be reduced to one member, namely to the weak one which is used in the position of the strong member. This becomes possible when the meaning of the strong member is expressed by some element of context which makes the grammatical expression of the same meaning unnecessary. This syntagmatic process is called neutralization and the elements of context that make neutralization possible are referred to as neutralizes. She was very happy while the fortnight lasted. Transposition consists in the use of the strong member of a privative opposition or any member of an equipollent opposition in the sphere of the other member. Unlike neutralization, transposition is always (though to a different degree) marked stylistically as the transposed member expresses a secondary, figurative M. The primary M of the grammatical form, it does not disappear completely but is shifted to the background of the semantic structure of the GF. It is this interplay of Ms that creates the so called 'effect of transposition'. This is why transpositions are usually referred to as grammatical metaphors. Like lexical metaphors grammatical metaphors may have a different degree of expressiveness: some have become regular and trite and some are still perceived as fresh and expressive. A typical example of transposition in grammar is the so-called 'dramatic present', i.e. the use of the Present tense in the past-time context which creates the impression of the reader being an immediate observer of the events described. Pragmatic softener.

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Functional semantic category – systems of heterogeneous means of the language constituted on the basis of common semantic contents or a common semantic function (все грамматические и лексические средства, которыми можно выразить одно грамматическое значение). One and the same semantic contents or concept can be expressed by units of different linguistic levels (before is a preposition and to precede is a V, semantically they are very close). For example, the M of time can be expressed by the following means. I'll arrange it if it is arrangeable. The adjective arrangeable is characterized by a syncretic grammatical semantics. Being a representative of the class of adjectives, it expresses the meaning of quality, but the suffix ~ able adds to this meaning two more GMs: the meaning of modality and the meaning of passivity which can be explicated by means of paraphrasing the sentence: I'll arrange it if it can be arranged. The presence of these meanings in the semantics of the adjective arrangeable proves that it actually belongs to three overlapping FSCs: quality, modality and voice. FSCs have a field structure, i.e. they have a centre and a periphery. The centre of a FSC is taken up by a GC or a grammatical class of words that express the given semantic contents in the most specialized and clear-cut way. The other components of a FSC occupy the periphery at a different distance from the centre. Their position in the periphery is determined by two factors: 1) how frequently they are used to express the given semantic contents; 2) how clearly they express it.

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The general current definition of parts of speech places them as lexico-grammatical word-classes which are characterized by a general abstract GM expressed in certain grammatical markers. A part of speech – are large lexico-grammatical classes of words differentiated on the basis of their semantic, morphological & syntactic propeties; the grammatical GC or word group in a language to which words may be assigned on the basis of how they are used in sentences. The traditional main parts of speech in English are noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. Others sometimes used are article and determiner. “Substance, thingness” – N, “process, action, state” – V, “property of an action” – Adv., in synthetic languages, adjectives, numerals, all pronouns are inflected in categories of case, number and gender, whereas in English, which exposes an analytical structure, these word-classes are utterly devoid of any grammatical markers with the exception of a few pronouns. The markers of degrees of comparison in some subclasses of adjectives and adverbs (longer, more difficult, more quickly) are evidently of a lexical nature, and not grammatical (categorial) because they change the meaning of the word itself and, besides, the very markers are either of lexicological (-er, -est) ors syntactic (more, the most) nature.

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The parts of speech – are large lexico-grammatical classes of words differentiated on the basis of their semantic, morphological & syntactic propeties; the grammatical category or word group in a language to which words may be assigned on the basis of how they are used in sentences. The traditional main parts of speech in English are noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. Others sometimes used are article and determiner. NPS have a full nominative value, i.e. they name objects, actions of the real world and their properties as they are conceptualized by the human mind and the latter are not correlated directly to objects or actions. They express relations between objects and actions (they are also called relationship words) and also attitudes and thus have a partial nominative value. Their specialization in expressing relations brings them very close to grammatical affixes, which becomes very obvious in the cross-linguistic analysis: most meanings of Russian case forms of nouns correspond to prepositions in English (нanucaнo Бaupoнoм - written by Byron). NWs present an open class - the more we learn about reality the more Ws appear in the language to name new phenomena, therefore the number of NWs is theoretically limitless. The number of FWs in any language is limited, they are basically a closed class (though few FWs were added to English in the course of its development and occasionally NWs may function in the positions of functional ones). The two classes differ morphologically: notional NWs have grammatical GCs and functional FWs have none. The functional difference between the two classes is also very distinct: each class of NWs is primarily designed for a certain syntactic position in the sentence which becomes its primary syntactic function. Functional FWs have no syntactic functions of their own. They either accompany notional NWs and are used in the syntactic positions together with them (articles and prepositions), or accentuate certain parts of the sentence (particles), or connect parts of the sentence and/or sentences (conjunctions), or stand outside the sentence structure and form a kind of projection on the information presented in the sentence expressing the speaker's emotional or judgmental attitude to this information (interjections, particles and modal Ws). The group of NWs in English comprises nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals, and pronouns. The class of FWs includes articles, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, modal Ws, and interjections. B.A.Ilyish considers the so called statives (words like asleep, awake, ablaze etc.) as a separate class of NWs. Blokh refers pronouns to functional words (?!) (they do not name objects or properties but just point to something already named) The boy came. He was young. He – noun substitute. The relations may be defined as appositive. Admoni said that numerals should be placed at the periphery of NWs (do not name an object but add a quantative characteristic to the class of N, have no GCs & syntactic position of their own except cases like Two and two makes four).

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A part of speech – are large lexico-grammatical classes of words differentiated on the basis of their semantic, morphological & syntactic propeties; the grammatical category or word group in a language to which words may be assigned on the basis of how they are used in sentences. The traditional main parts of speech in English are noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. Others sometimes used are article and determiner. Functional or syntactic transposition – is a syntagmatic process which consists in the use of a word belonging to one part of speech in the syntactic function characteristic of another part of speech. She sings very Dixieland.- NAdv.; A nothing day, Herr Ritter.- PrnAdj; At last she started walking slowly down the now deserted corridor.- AdvAdj.. It can carry two important functions compensatory /N – V – Adj – Adv: ease – to ease – easy – easily, BUT: friend – to befriend (smb) – friendly -?/ (makes up for certain constrains in the sphere of word building) – After a week we served ourselves Chinese style, standing & stretching across the table one after another. NB. The adverbial nouns way & manner are often transposed into adverbial sphere to make up for the absence of corresponding verb. The second function of ST is expressive (used to express unconventional meaning; the speakers of the language reveal their ability to use language creatively) – As I meet this brown-eyed spaniel expression I realize…

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The N is a part of speech which unites Ws with the general categorial M (common M of the Ws belongin’ to one part of speech) of substance or thingness. Substance is a very wide notion, any concept starting with the most abstract may be verbalized as a noun. Therefore the semantic space of substance is very wide & the class of noun unites names of objects & persons as well as names of quality, processes, states, abstract notions, manner of action which make up the periphery of the class. It is the most numerous p of s. In English nouns make up about 42% of all words.It is also the most frequently used p of s. According to statistics every 4th word used in speech is a noun, it is also a very open & hostible p of s which constantly draws into its sphere.Words of other classes,phrases& sentences that become occasional nouns (there is a big it to it) The most productive means of noun-building are suffixation, convertion & compounding. Above the n-building suffixes (er-or)has the highest productivity & can derive nouns both from verbs & phrases (a one-nighter—a hotel, head-turner—a girl) Conversion is also a very productive means of n-building (to do-do,to think-think) Examples of compounds r also numerous in the sphere of nouns (a copycat-кривляка).The heterogeneous character of the semantics of noun finds its manifestation in the syntactic potential of this class, besides their primary syntactic function of the subject & object.Eng nouns are also used in the secondary syntact. function of the attribute & AM (cableman, a bit strange, a lot smarter) As for the predicative function it may be both primary & secondary. If the noun is used in its classifying function, it is primary & if the noun is used in its qualifying function, it is secondary. (This is my husband.—primary/ She is but a child & at heart a heathen - qualif,secondary)

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Turning to the analysis of the ways expressing gender in eng nouns,we find a number of means for expressing gender distinctions.1.suffixes (widow-widower, bachelor-bachelorette) 2.oppositions of lexems (boy-girl, bachelor-spinster) 3.components of compound words used as gender indicator (boyfriend-girlfriend, tom cat -tobby cat). There exist a certain gender correlation between nouns denoting animate things & personal pronouns replacing them.From the point of view of gender destinction,eng nouns can be devided into 2 groups:

N

person non-person

feminim masculin neutral

she he it

However this opposition is not absolute & doesn’t embrace the whole class of nouns. There are a lot of nouns in eng that belong to the so called ‘common gender’ (person, cousin, parent, president, prime-minister)Besides the choice of a personal pronoun to mark gender is often a matter of tradition & on individual choice of the writer. Thus cars & ships are traditionally treated as feminine. For a person not quite familiar with the reference to a car as male or female is not always easy to understand The reason for the choice of personal pronouns to replace such nouns as the sun,the moon, the war, when they r personalized must be traced in classical mythology & depend on whether they r associated with the names of Gods or Goddesses. In fiction the choice of a personal pronoun to replace a personified common nouns is often the matter of the writters individual perceptions & fantasy. All these arguments speak in favor of treating gender not as morphological category, but as a semantic category which finds various ways of expression in the language.

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The GC of number in the English noun is conceptual in its nature and presents a specific linguistic reflection of quantitative relations between homogeneous objects of reality conceptualized by the human mind. It is constituted by the binary privative opposition of singular and plural forms. The formal marker of the opposition is represented by several phonetically and historically conditioned allomorphs, such as [z] (boys), [s] (cats), [iz] (classes), [0] (bizon, sheep), [en] (oxen), [ae] (antennae), [ai] (radii) etc. There are quite a few doublets among the plural forms which differ either lexically (a penny -pennies (coins,), pence (sum of money); genius - geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits) or stylistically, as in brother ~ brothers and brethren, or cow - cows and kine. Semantically the forms of the plural are not homogeneous either. The paradigmatic meaning of plurality is represented by a number of syntagmatic variants, such as: discrete plurality (books, houses), indiscrete plurality (hours, miles), partitive plurality (spectacles, trousers), variety plurality {wines, cheeses, fruits, teas), space plurality (snows, sands, waters), family, or clan plurality (the Browns, the Smiths). These syntagmatic Ms are the result of the interaction between the general paradigmatic M and the semantics of the nouns. Some plural forms of the nouns may acquire a new LM and become lexicalized (colours, customs, arms, quarters, minutes etc.). The singular form of the noun which is the weak member of the opposition has a wide and extensive meaning which is best defined as 'non-plurality' and includes such meanings as: singularity (A minute of your attention, please), uncountability (We are as different as chalk and cheese), generalization (A child can understand this). Neutralization of the opposition 'singular:: plural' is observed in the case of countable nouns used with the definite article in the so-called generic function, e.g. The birch tree is a symbol of Russia. From the point of view of their number characteristics Ns fall into 2 classes; countable and uncountable. This feature of the noun determines its choice of the article, the quantitative pronoun and the form of the predicate (singular or plural). Uncountable nouns are further subdivided into two groups: Singularia Tantum and Pluralia Tantum. The group of Singularia Tantum includes: 1. names of abstract notions (love, friendship etc.); 2. names of mass materials (bread, butter, sugar etc.); 3. names of some collective inanimate objects (foliage, machinery etc); 4. names of sciences and professional activities (medicine,

architecture etc.); 5. nouns of heterogeneous semantics. This is a limited group and includes such nouns as: hair, advice, knowledge, money, information, news.

The first four groups of nouns of Singularia Tantum denote concepts which are incompatible with the idea of countability, which means that the reason for the absence of the plural form is extralinguistic and therefore universal. The equivalents of such nouns in other languages also lack plural forms for the same reason and therefore the use of these nouns presents no difficulties for learners of English. As the analysis of these examples shows such Singularia Tantum nouns, when used in the plural form, always acquire additional meanings. Tax moneys means considerable sums of money coming from various taxes (this explanation was suggested by an English speaker who used this noun in the plural). The fifth group which includes nouns with heterogeneous meanings presents difficulties for Russian learners of English because the reasons for the absence of the plural form are language-specific and the number characteristics of these English nouns and their Russian equivalents do not coincide. Therefore these nouns require special attention and a lot of training in the process of learning and teaching English grammar.

The group of Pluralia Tantum nouns includes: 1. nouns denoting objects consisting of two parts {trousers, spectacles etc.); 2. nouns denoting results of repeated processes (savings, labours, belongings etc.); 3. nouns of multitude (police, gentry, poultry, cattle); 4. nouns of various semantics (oats, outskirts, clothes etc.). The last two groups of Pluralia Tantum nouns present difficulties for learners of English because the number characteristics of the equivalents of these nouns in Russian are different and the mother tongue may have an interfering effect.

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Grammatical category of case – GC which marks the semantic role of the noun in the sentence & finds a grammatical expression in the language. The morphological expression of case in modern English is limited to the system of two cases. The category of case of the English noun is constituted by the binary privative opposition of the Common and Possessive cases. The formal marker of the Possessive case is the morpheme 's, represented by three phonetically conditioned variants: [z] as in boy's, [s ] as in cat's and [iz] as in George's. The origin of this morpheme - the King his head=> King’s head. The morpheme of the Possessive case has a very peculiar character as it can be joined not only to nouns proper but also to phrases (somebody else's problems, the British Ambassador in Russia's arrival in Barnaul) and even sentences, e.g. I forgot the woman I danced with yesterday's name. This peculiar behavior of the - 's gave rise to an opinion that 's is not a grammatical morpheme, but a kind of postpositive element and consequently, the words and phrases with - 's belong to the domain of syntax rather than morphology However, studying the GC of number in English nouns we also come across the cases when the morpheme of the piural is added to phrases (good-for-nothings, won't -works) and sentences (their how- it- goings) and yet we do not doubt the nature ofthe morpheme. The most common syntagmatic Ms of the Possessive Case are the following:

1. pure possessivity my sister’s money

2. agent or subject of the action my brother’s arrival

3. object of the action the criminal’s arrest

4. authorship Shakespeare’s sonnet

5. destination a sailor’s uniform

6. measure a day’s wait

7. location at the dean’s

8. description or comparison a lion’s courage

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V - a word used to show that an action is taking place or to indicate the existence of a state or condition, or the part of speech to which such a word belongs. Notional V-s form (most of ‘em regular, irregular the oldest to appear); M (dynamic & static, transitive/ terminative & durative / intransitive). The class of verbs gets enriched by means of: affix-n, conversion, compounding. The most productive suff-s are: -ate, -ize, -ify, -en. Pref-s: over-, under-, re-, dis-, mis-, en-, un-. There are also cases of syncretism when a functional V fulfills 2 functions. Ex: She was sad & crying. Valency - is the ability of the verb to determine the number and the character of other parts of the sentence.

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Grammatical category of tense – denotes the reflection of objective divisions of time – present, past & future + in English, time viewed from some point in the past, so called Future-in-the-past or Future I as opposed to Future I; expresses the relation between the time of the action & the moment of speech (now) or any other point in reference taken for the basis of temporal relations (then). Sequence of tenses is an assentially semantic phenomenon. This rule is observed only if the action refers to the ontological past (past of the real world). If the actions of the objective clause refers to the ontological pres or future this rule is generally not observed. The E system of T consists of two subsystems: absolute and relative tenses. Abs tenses are correlated to the moment of speech. Relative T are correlated to some moment in the past.

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Aspect involves diffr ways of viewing the internal temporal consistency of situation & presenting it by the verbal forms. It expr the speaker's interpretation of the internal limit of the act, result, duration. Asp in diffr Ls may choose diffr features of act for its basis. In R Asp has at its basis the meaning of the internal limit of act & is constituted on the oppos-ion of perf/non-perf forms of the verb (делать/сделать). Besides gr means Asp in R may also be expr-d lex-ly (делать/перед-ть). Asp in E has at its basis a diffr feature of act, that of duration & is constituted on the oppos-ion of Indef & Continuous forms of the verb.

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Time Correlation interprets the concept of time from the asp of temporal asp of actions. The gr cat-ry of Time is constituted by the oppos-ion of Perf/Nonperf forms. There are diffr opinions on the oppos-ion. We share the view of Smirnitskij who treats the oppos as a separate gr cat-ry "The c-ry of Time correlation". The marked member is built with the help of the discontinious form "Have+ed". The meaning of the Perf form includes 2 interrelated components: priority, correlation to another act or point of time in the Pres, Past, Futur. This cat-ry is anthropological: it reflects the speaker's interpretation of the relations b/w the actions. In certain context the General meaning of priority can be modefied & presented by several syntagmatic meanings: 1) Result it is found with terminative verbs & appears to be the result of the gr meaning of priority & the aspective char-re of the verb.2) Experience is the most evident manifestation of the anthropological char-re of the cat-ry. Pr Perf denotes a past act which has a pres time relevance for the speaker. 3) Continuation of the past act in the pres is found with durative V. Ex: I've been here for months. 4)An unfulfield act is found after the modal verbs: be might, ought, should & after the verbs of hope, intention, expectation used in the past tense.the Perf form showes that the expected act wasn't realized.5) Intensity- absolute complition of the act. This use of Perf forms is very expressive. The Past Perf intfrrupts the lion of a sucsession of past actions. Ex: He walked & whistled & suddenly he had stopped. In the text the Perf form forms a retrospective to understand the causitive-consequitive relations b/w the act-s. The weak memberof the oppos has a very wide & general meaning. The oppos Perf/Nonperf may be neutralized when the meaning of priority is expressed by other elements of context (on, upon, after+Ger). The cat-ry needs spec attention in teaching because priority & correlation don't have gr expression in R.

Card 19.

Mood is traditionally defined as a grammatical category which expresses the relation of the action to reality as stated by the speaker. As follows from the definition mood seems to be the only morphological category which includes the category of the speaker in its definition. It means that it is one of the most speaker-oriented categories. The forms of the moods serve the needs of the speaker to present the action as real, unreal (contradicting the state of things in reality) or hypothetical. The category of mood presents the interpretation of the action by the speaker from the point of view of its relation to reality. Scholars differ greatly in the understanding of this category, its scope and, consequently, in the number of grammatical forms of the mood they find in English. This number varies from two (e.g. in L.S.Barkhudarov's interpretation) to sixteeen (e.g. in M-Deutchbein's interpretation). Such a divergence of opinions lies in the complexity of the category itself and also in two other phenomena. The first is the problem of drawing a borderline between polysemy and homonymy. Both as we have already stated permeate the structure of the English language at all levels and sometimes the borderline between them is hard to draw. Let us turn to the analysis of two sentences: He stopped doing it and / wish he stopped doing it. What are the relations between stopped' and stopped2? Do we have one polysemantic form which is used to express an action, presented by the speaker as real in the first sentence and an action presented as unreal in the second? Or do we have two morphological homonyms here? L.S. Barkhudarov treats such cases as morphological polysemy of the Past Indefinite Indicative on the ground mat the forms do not differ in any of the verbs and consequently he finds only two moods in English: the Indicative and the Imperative moods. His analysis is based on the formal approach and he does not take into consideration the semantic fact that the meanings of real and unreal actions are mutually exclusive and such meanings do not usually coexist within one and the same polysemantic unit. Besides there is no absolute homonymy of forms: the forms of the verb 'to be' differ in the Indicative the system of grammatical moods and in this case the number of moods grows considerably. Thus, the system of moods presented by Max Deutchbein includes 4 moods: Cogitativus, Optativus, Voluntativus and Expectativus with 4 submoods in each. His 'submoods' include the combinations of may+- Inf (may go) which he calls The Permissive Mood, can +Inf. which is called The Potential Mood [Deutchbein 1926, 112]. As we can see, the problem here is the differentiation between the morphological category of the mood and other means of expressing modality. If we include all the modal verbs with Infinitives into the grammatical category of mood the number of moods may exceed sixteen. There is no space and no need to enumerate all the possible classifications of moods. In our interpretation and classification of moods we shall follow the classification system of moods presented by A.I.Smirnitsky. It appears to be the most consistent because it is meaning-oriented and it also takes into consideration the difference between an anaiytical form and a free syntactic combination. His system of moods includes six moods: the Indicative, the Imperative, Subjunctive I, Subjunctive II, the Conditional Mood and the Suppositional Mood. Since the forms of mood differ semantically in the way they present the action (as real, unreal or hypothetical) it is possible to place the forms of moods tn accordance with this scale.

Card 20.

We follow the Smirnitskij's classif-ion. It is the most constant & meaning oriented. His system includes 6 M-s:

_______Real_______________Hypothetical_____________Unreal___

(Indicative) (Imperative,subj1,Suppos) (Subj2,Condition)

The Indicative M presents the act as real from the speaker's point of v. It is the most frequently used. It has the gratest number of forms. It is used in 2 communic types of sent: Declarative & Interrogative.

The Imperative M is used to expr & enducement to act which means that the speaker expr desirable, necessary. Yet, the act is not real. The enducement refferes to the future event if this futur is a moment away from the pres moment. The forms of the Imper M is the INF without 'to', the neg f-s are built with the aux 'Do'.

Subj 2 is used in the following types of sent:

- in simple sent to expr unreal wish or desire(If only he were free.).

- in subj clauses after the Principle clause "it's time"

- in pred clause introduced by the conj which serves as the signal of turning from the real state of things into unreal.(You look as if...).

- in Obj clauses after "to wish" in the princ clause. Such sent-s expr a wish contrary to reality, smth that cannot fulfiled.

- in addverbial clauses of comparison, concession & condition. Ex: He looked at me as if he were embarrassed.

The Conditional M is built with the help of "should/would"+Inf of the notional verb. It is used to present an act which is the consequence of an unreal condition.

The other 2 M-s Subj 1 & Suppositional are diffr in form but very similar in meaning & context of use.

The forms of Subj 1 are homonimous to the Inf without 'to'.

The Suppos M is built with the help of 'should' for all persons + Inf.

Both the M-s present the act as possible, hypothetical, necessary. Both are used in the same type of clauses: Subj & Obj (after suggest, propose, demand, command);Adv Cl of purpose,concession, condition.

The only diffr b/w them is that only Subj 1 is used in simple sent. Ex: Long live friendship.

Now Subj 1 is common in AmE but it is rearely used in BrE.

Card 21.

Voice is defined as the grammatically marked diateze, i.e. the regular indication of the relations between the units of the syntactic and the semantic levels of the sentence by the form of the verb. This interpretation appears to be quite adequate as it points out the morphological character of the voice and its correlation to the syntactic and semantic structures of the sentence, thus binding morphology, syntax and semantics together. The category of voice is constituted by the binary privative opposition Passive:: Non-passive. The formal marker of the Passive voice is the auxiliary be and the morpheme of PII In colloquial speech get is also used, e.g. He got arrested. Get is most often used in colloquial speech to imply that the subject of the sentence suffers adversely as a result of the action, e.g. My friend got fired. Even when the subject does not suffer adversely the passive suggests that the subject has been truly affected by the action, e.g. My friend got promoted last. In terms of diateze the form of the active voice marks the parallelism between the syntactic and semantic structures of the sentence. E.g., in the sentence They asked no questions the syntactic subject they corresponds to the semantic subject, or the agent of the action and the syntactic object questions - to the semantic object, or the recipient of the action. In the sentence No questions were asked the Passive voice marks the absence of such parallelism: the syntactic subject questions corresponds to the semantic object and the semantic subject they is not represented in the syntactic structure of the sentence.

The meaning of the Active voice is rather wide and indefinite and therefore best defined negatively as 'non-passive'. The forms of the active voice can manifest that:

1)the action is directed at the object (which is the case with transitive verbs), e.g. He loved a crowd, he wanted to see smart people and be seen; 2) the action is not directed at an object (with intransitive verbs), e.g. He stumbled about the room cursing breathlessly; 3)the subject of the sentence is both the agent and the recipient of the action (the so-called reflexive meaning), e.g. He cut himself while shaving. He dressed quickly and went out; 4) the subject and object of the sentence are both agents and recipients of the action (the so-called reciprocal meaning), e.g. They blamed each other. They kissed and parted; 5) the meaning of an agent is ascribed to the object (the so-called middle voice), e.g. The book sold in two million copies. The cloth washes well. This use of the Active voice is referred to as pseudo-passive and the cases of pseudo-passive are numerous. E.g. It was rubbish, but annoying! the sort of rubbish that wouldn 't sell! As every Forsyte knows, rubbish that sells is not rubbish at all - far from it. I cannot, of course, tell Stew that nothing Is doing. These examples can, in fact, be treated as cases of neutralization. The role of neutralizes is fulfilled by the subjects of the sentence - their semantics suggests that their referents can only be the recipients of the actions denoted by the verbs with which they combine, but not agents. Similar cases of neutralization occur in the sphere of non-finite forms, e.g. The house is to Jet. The house wanted doing up. The ability of the verb to build a passive form is related to the transitivity of a verb. Another statement of the traditional grammar that requires reconsideration is that sometimes an adverbial modifier of place can become the subject of a passive construction, e.g. The house is not lived in. The bed was not slept in. The passive transforms and their active correlates are usually said to have the same propositional contents, i.e. they reflect the same situation of reality. Beavers build dams. Dams are built by beavers. There are several reasons for using an agentless passive. 1) The agent is unknown. Such cases are common for thrillers and police reports and are called 'Sinister Passive' by English grammarians. E.g. Entry was made through the door. No objects appear to have been removed. He had been killed in his sleep. 2) The agent is known but not relevant. It is usually the case in scientific style where the attention is focused on the object rather than the agent. E.g. Many attempts have been made to find central or basic meanings for each modal that can explain their common and effortless us. 3) When the speaker does not want to reveal the identity of the agent and deliberately avoids mentioning the agent. The Watergate scandal in the USA produced the weak admission from the administration that 'Mistakes were made'. Very often the agent of the action is not mentioned deliberately for reasons for politeness. The phenomenon of politeness finds numerous manifestations in the English language and the use of the agentless passive is just of them. E.g. Could we possibly have the TV switched off? (Instead of: Could you switch off the TV?).

4) The agent of the action is not mentioned when it is a general person. This use occurs in general statements expressing universal truths. E.g. Hungry people are easily led

5) The speaker deliberately focuses his/her attention on the object, thus making the object more important than the agent. E.g. "Are you being helped/served?

Card 22.

Syntax is a part of gr which studies ways of arranging words into sentences to produce speech. The main units of the Syntactic level are: the word in it's position in the sent, word phrases, the simple sent, the composite sent, the text.

Being the central unit of Synt the simple S has been in the focus of lingv attention. The problem of its definiton like that of the word appears to be quite complicated. There are a lot of definitions of the simple sent.

The course of this variety of definitions lies in the fact that the S.S is a many sided phenomenon and can be defined and studied from several aspects. It's main aspects are: the form which deals with the problem how the Sent is built, the meaning which tells us what the Sent is about, the function which is correlated with the question what for the sent is uttered.

The definition and the understanding of the sent depend on: the view-point of the lingv(the school a lingv belongs to), the aspect of the sent which is in the focus of the linguist's attention.

From the communicative p v the sent is defined as the minimum unit of communication and each sent is pronounced with the certain comm aim either to make a statement, requests, to ask for information.

Studied from the formal (structural p v) the sent is defined as a group of worlds based on predicative relations. S=NP+VP.

From the p of view of it's meaning the sent is defined as an expression of a complete thought about and event of reality. Perhaps the best definition would be the are that embraces all the three aspects.

Another problem is it's level belonging, ie whether it is a unit of the langv or a unit of speech or both.

Unlike words sent-s don't exist in the langv as readymade units.

Each time sent-s are created anew by the speaker in the act of communication. Yet, each sent as an act of com-n has at its basis a certain syntactic str-re which exists in the langv and consequently in the speakers lingv competence. And from this aspect the sent presents a unit of the langv.

Thus, the sent must be treated as a unit of the langv which because actualized in speech. And thus actualized sent has an aim of it's own, it's called an utterence.

The utterence as a unit of sp is much wider in its char-ristics than the sent taken isolotedly from the situational context.

Ex: the sent: It' cold. in different situational context may be actualized differently and produce at least 3 utterences: a mear statement, a question, an implicite request.

Card 23.

The main categories of the sent are: predicat-ty, modality, negation. There are as many definitions of predicat-ty as of the sent. The most widely exepted is: Pred-ty is the category which establishes the relations b/w the nominative contence of the sent & reality.

We stated that to become an utterence the sent must be actualized, ie related to a concrete situation of reality. To do so we must place the event, named in the sent in time, presented as real, unreal or desirable & relate it to the doer of the action or the carier of the state.

Pred-ty involves establishing subj-predicate relations which in it's term is accomplished by the Gr categories of tence, mood, persone. These 3 cat-ries are necessary for establishing predicative relations.

Thus we may conclude that the cat of pred-ty has a morpho-syntactic nature.

The expression of pred-ty in the sent is called predication.

Scholars deffirentiate b/w primary: secondary pred-ion & b/w explisite: implisite pred-n. Primary pred-ion establishes subj-predic relations and is expressed by the finite form of the verb.

Secondary pred-ion is contained in gerundial, infinitivial, participial constructions, absolute constr-ns, detached parts of the sent which name the event but don't place it in time.

Structures of sec-ry pred-ion cannot function as autonomous sent-s, & they are related to the obj reality only through the main (primary) pred-n.

Sent-s with structures of secondary pred-ion are not simple because they name two events of reality. Such sent-s are semi-() or semi-complex.

In sent-s with primary & secondary pred-ion we deal with explicite pred-ion. Primary - finite, secondary - ()

Besides explicite pred-ion there exist the so-called emplicite pred-ion. We come across it in sent-s which are stucturelly simple. And yet, thay name not one but two situations of reality. This is usually found in sent-s which contain event ().

Ex: I was late because of the rain.

In fact not only event () but any noun in the str-re of the text & even a pro() may function as an event () & thus express impicite pred-ion.

Card 24.

Modality - is a very copatious & complicated cat-ry. Usually it's devided into two types: objective (primary), subjective (secondary).

Obj M express the relation of the contence of the sent to reality as stated or established by the speaker, ie it shows whether the speaker presents the action as real, unreal or hypothetic. It's expressed by the Gr cat of the mood. & thus, it is a component of pred-ty. It's always expressed explicitely in the sent. No primary mod-ty - no sent.

Subj. M consists of two layers:

- It expressed the relations b/w the subj of the sent & the action, ie it shows whether the speaker presents the action as necessary, obligatory, permissive for the subj. It's also called the action mod-ty. It's expressed by the modal verbs in their predic-oriented meanings (necessary, ability, possibility...).

- Expresses the speakers evaluation of the action from the p of view of it's truth.

This type of m-ty is called EPISTEMIC or belief mod-ty. It has difr means of expression in the langv. it can be expr-d by modal words which expr diffr degrees of certainty.

Modal verbs in their sent-oriented meanings (doubt, suppos-ion, disbelieve, certainty). Ex: He may've left.

Modalized verbs (seem, appear); performative verbs (v of speech & mental act-ty: think, believe, suppose); sintact structures (tag-qu); intonation; smtimes by word-order.

M-ty is a culture sensitive cat-ry. The specific feature of E is the abundance & the frequent use of various means to express subj mod-ty. Which make the speech less assertive and more polite. It is in absolute accordance with the principle of politeness char-ristic of British sp-eticet. Thus principle includes 3 main components: don't impose your oppinion, give options, make the hearer feel good, be friendly.

Smtimes means of expressing subj mod-ty may be piled in one sent especially if the speaker says smth not very pleasant. Ex: I don't wish to seam spiteful but I'm afraid I don't think she can've been a very nice woman.

The Russian langv as compared to E appears to be more direct and more categoric and this diffr must be taken into consider-n in learning, teaching & interpriting.

Mod-ty is also a gender-sensitive cat-ry and there are obvious diffr-ces b/w men's & woman's speech in the use of modal means. Typical female speech usually lacks the assertiveness of men's speech & it's often pointed out that woman use more means of expr-ing subj mod-ty which make their sp more tentative & less assertive. Thus, where a man says: "This is better!" she might say: "This is better, isn't it?"

Card 25.

N-ion is sentential cat-ry by means of which a speaker expresses if the event takes or doesn't take place. It is a component of a larger category called polarity. It's also closely connected to the c-ry of mod-ty.

According to its scope mod-ty may be complete & partial. In the case of sentential (compl) mod-ty the whole proposition is negated. In the case of partial neg-ion an element of proposition is negated. Ex: no one understood his jokes.-Some people didn't und his jokes.

Neg-ion may also be differentiated into: gram & lex.

The gr means of neg-ion include: the negative particle "not" (with verbs); the negative pronouns & adverbs (no one, never,); the negative conj (neither, nor).

Lex means of neg-ion include: fail, refuse, deny, mind; neg-ion is also expr-d with the help of: un-, ir-, -less, = without. Ex: helpless.

There is explisite & implisite neg-ion.

Impl n-ion is contained in sent-s with hardly, scarcely, too, but for.

Neg-ion in E has some spec features diffr from Russ:

-E sent-s are gr-ly mononegative, R sent-s are polynegative.

-In E the negator tends to be placed in the modal part of the utterance which makes the sent less assertive. Ex: I don't think he'll come.

-The 2nd part of a tag-qu. The response to the utterance depend on whether the preceding str-re is affirmative or negative.

These points require spec attention in teaching E because the interference of the mothertongue may be very strong.

Card 26.

The structural asp of the sent deals with the formal organization of the sent. It reveals the mechanisms of deriving, modifying sent-s & of classifying sent-s according to their str-re.

So sent-s are classif-d into: Simple & composite which are subdivided into: COMPLEX & COMPOUND.

Compl sent are based on the principle of subordination b/w their components.

Compound sent on the princ of coordination.

The border line b/w them is not always very rigid. There are sent-s which are formally compl but are close to comp sent-s from the pw of the semantic relations b/w the clauses. Ex: It snowed last night which is unusual for April. Formally it is a compl sent with the subbord -attr-continuative cl.

The meaning of subordination b/w clauses is weaken. This compl sent semantically is very close to a comp sent "It snowed & it's unusual."

Ex: I missed my bus and therefore I'm late. Formally it's compound but sem-ly it's equivalent to a compl sent As I missed my bus I'm late.

Besides the pure types (a simple/ a composite) there are marginal types which are Semi-compl & Semi-compound sent. These types of sent-s include str-res of the sec-ry predication. Complex obj & compl subj str-res, absolute particip constr-tions & double predicate.

Card 27.

Depending on the number of components simple sent are divided into: unextended, & extended.

The simple unext-d sent was trad-ly used as the main instrument of syntactic analises. However if we look more carefully at some of simple unext sent we will see that some of them are ungrammatical (unmarked) because they are sem-ly incomplete (meaningless). Ex: He took.

These sent are meaningless 'cause the valency of the verb has not been realized & the meaning of the verb has not been exposed.

Valency is the ability of the V to combine with other parts of the sent for the V to realize its lex meaning & to become the sem-tic & structural center of the sent.

It's necessary to differentiate b/w the Olig-ty valency & oblig parts of the sent & optional parts of the sent which give additional inform. Ex: The little boy put his big bag on the kitchen table.

Attributes may be both: Optional & Oblig depending on the type of the sent. In the pres gr these terms have been replaced by The elementary sent. The minimum str-re which include the predic-te, the subject, & the oblig-ry parts is called The structural minimum. The sent based on the str-ral scheme is called the Elementary sent & it serves as the instrument of syntact anal.

A set of str schemes makes the syntactic basis of the langv. The most typical str-ral schemes of the sent in E are: N+intransV (the train arrived); N+transV+DO(I like apples); N+trV+indObj+DO(He gave me a book);N+intrV+AM of manner(She behaved like an angel);

N+trV+DO+Ammanner(He treated as royally)

Card 28.

The structural minimum/ structural scheme of the sentence – is the minimum structure of the sentence which includes the predicate & the obligatory parts of the sentence; belongs to the level of language. The sentence which is based on this structural scheme is called elementary sentence & serves as the instrument of syntactic analysis. The processes of extending & compressing the elementary sentence: Extension – is adding to a part of the sentence a unit of the same syntactic status. 'Nice, nice old woman!'/ 'The excited voices grew louder and louder.' Expansion – is modifying one part of the sentence by another subordinated to it. The Moscow train arrived at the little station at 6 sharp. Compounding – is changing the part of the sentence (namely the predicate) from simple to compound. It was a joke. – It must’ve been a joke./ They were friends – They used to be friends. Contamination – results in the formation of the so-called double predicate, i.e. verb begins to fulfill a double function (notional & link) He stood smoking./ He sat lunchless. Detachment – is accentuating a part of the sentence & is achieved by a pause in oral speech & by commas or dashes in writing. Parcelation – is the ultimate degree of detachment; the detached part is separated by a full stop & forms a separate syntactic structure./// Substitution – is replacing a part of the sentence or a whole sentence by a word-substitude. I’m very happy – U look it. Representation – is the use of a part of syntactic unit or a part of a grammatical form to represent the whole form. Finally I got divorced. – U always wanted to. Ellipsis – is a process of deleting from a sentence one or more parts which are redundant from the informative point of view. Fresh mail!

Card 29.

The central notion of the sem asp of the sent is that of a sem(deep) str-re of the sent. The sent is treated as a lingv sign & it possesses form, denotation, signification.

The denotatum of a word is an obj or a phenomenon of reality.

The significatum is a concept of this concept in our mind.

Sem analisis of several sent-s: The student was writing his project.

The professor will reexamine `us tomorrow.

My Granny didn't finish her knitting.

These sent-s are absolutely diffr but yet they share certain inform-ion,ie they name an action & its 2 participants: agent & obj. This inform-ion constitutes the sem str-re of the sent ie it is the generalised meaning of the sent.

The components of the sem str-re are Actants/deep cases/sem arguments.

Today the sem str-re is understood as the plot of the abstract plan of the sent or the interface b/w the mental dictionary & the lex-gram str-re.

Classification of sem types of the sent-s:

1. Chafe (based on the sem types of the predicate):

- Statal sent-s. It's cold.

- Process sent-s. It was raining.

- Action sent-s. He cleans his teeth.

2. Arutyunova (based on the logical types of situations reflected in the sent):

- S of nomination (smth happened smwhere)

- S of existence. There lived a girl.

- S of char-zation. He is a good boy.

- S of identif-ion. You are the boy who wanted to talk with me?

So, we see that each sent can be analyzed from the syntact & sem pv.

The relations b/w the syntact & sem str-res may be of 2 kinds: semetrical & assemetrical. There's a fundamental parallelism b/w the parts of the sent and their sem functions in the sent which is reflected in the primary sem funct-s of the parts of the sent.

Ex: the primary sem funct of the subj is Agent.

of the obj is Object.

of the pred-t is Action.

So, the fundam parallelism b/w the syntact & sem str-res of the sent is often broken & as everywhere in the langv cases of assimetry are more frequent then cases of semetry. The assim-ry b/w sem & syntact str-res of the sent may find various manifestations. Some of them are:

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