h) You can have eve- | 8) that you want. |
rything |
|
BEGINNINGS | ENDS |
a) Hle that fears the bushes h) He that travels far c) He that sups with the devil d) He that will eat the kernel e) He that never climbed 1) He that comes first to the hill | 1) may sit where he will 2) must crack the nut 3) must never go a- birding 4) knows much 5) must have a long spoon 6) never fell |
Exercise 6..loin the following sentences, as in the example.
1. My brother has lots of friends. Many of them are in his class.
My brother has lots of friends, many of whom are in his class.
2. My father has a large collection of coins. Many of them are foreign.
3. I baked lots of biscuits yesterday. Very few of them are left now.
4. She knows lots of people at work. A few of them are from New Zealand.
5. I have four aunts. None of them are married.
6. There are thousand of trees in the forest. Some of them are very old.
7. The room was packed with people. Amy had never seen many of them before.
8. He devotes most of his words to two topics: money and health. He seemed to lack each of them in equal measure.
9. He remains a great admirer of Warhol. He owns several of his pictures.
10 They heard two voices ahead. One of them suddenly rose above the other in anger.
11. They have two sizes of mixing bowl. The larger one inverts over the scales for easy storage.
12. She gave birth to eight children. The youngest died in 1954.
Exercise 7. Look at these examples of relative clauses and say whether they are defining or non-defining:
3. All the 14-year-olds have some of their lessons in a special unit for children who have fallen behind on reading, writing and maths...
4. Jean Bond, who is running the special unit while on sabbatical from Warwick University’s education department, says...
5. The boy I've been teaching does the same.
6.... says 8-year-old Jenny of her tutor, Cliff McFarlane, who, among his own teachers, has the reputation of being a bit of a handful
7. Jean Bond, who describes pupil tutoring as an ’educational conjuring trick', has run two previous experiments.
8. The degree of concentration they showed... was remarkable for pupils who had previously shown little ability to concentrate on anything related to schoolwork...
9. Their view of education, which they had previously dismissed as ’crap’ and ’a waste of time’, was transformed.
10. Unfortunately Frank Wolf, who would never have agreed, was away at the time.
Exercise 8. a) Say if the gaps in the following sentences are likely to be filled with defining or non-defining relative clauses, or whether both are possible.
1. I don’t like having to talk to people_________.
2. Peter Smith_________ rang you earlier.
3. Politicians________ are a dishonorable bunch of people.
4. I’ll show you the photographs___________
5. The Houses of Parliament__________ stand on the river Thames.
6. My children_________ are coming with us on a trip to America.
7. I gave her a piece of cake ____________.
8. I’d like you to meet someone ___________.
9. The British police__________ are highly trained.
10. My________ cat is getting a little overweight.
11.My cat’s name is Wally. The only food is the most expensive brand.
12. He is a very happy cat. Dogs are his only source of worry in the
world.
b) Below are the missing relative clauses. Put them into the correct sentence in part a changing punctuation, if necessary. Some of the clauses could be both types. Which are they?
7...deceive the public...
8....likes to sleep in front of the fire all day..
9....carry guns...
10.....still go to school...
11....chase cats...
12....lives in Bradford, not the one who lives in Chester...
Exercise 9. Explain the difference in meaning between each pair of sentences.
0 a) She decided to take the first train that stopped in Strasbourg; b) She decided to take the first train, which stopped in Strasbourg.
1 a) The people, who hadn't seen the weather forecast, were caught unawares by the hurricane; b) The people who hadn't seen the weather forecast were caught unawares by the hurricane.
2 a) We couldn't eat the food, which was bad; b) We couldn't eat the food that was bad.
3 a) I was hoping to visit my cousin, who lives in New Zealand; b) I was hoping to visit my cousin who lives in New Zealand.
4 a) They picked all the fruit that had ripened; b) They picked all the fruit, which had ripened.
Exercise 10. a) In the following sentences, omit the relative pronoun or replace it with that where possible:
I. The book which you borrowed from me is long overdue at the library. 2. We called at a pub which is said to be the oldest in England,
3. They eventually decided to part with their old car, which had given them so many years of loyal service.
4. You should make sure that the travel agency which you deal with is a member of AВТА.
5. I asked to speak to the manager, who turned out to have left the company.
h) (a) Put in nothing at all, or (b) if that is not possible, put in that, or (c) if that is not possible, put in who(m) or which.
9 I’m looking for something
10 We planted some birch trees will clean leather.
_ grow tall very quickly.
Exercise 11. Make each pair of sentences into one sentence without using who(m) /which /that
1 You asked me to get you a paper. Here's the paper. (Here's...)
2 You recommended a film. We went to see the film, but we didn’t think much of it. (We went...)
3 My sister bought a new car last month. The car has broken down four times al ready. (The car...)
4 You didn’t recognise an actor on television last night. The actor was Paul Newman. (The actor...)
5 Jane had some friends at school. Only a very few of the friends went on toi university. (Only...)
6 My father had an operation for his heart problem. The operation was only a partial success. (The operation...)
7 Mark wrote an essay while we were on holiday. The essay has won a prize in the school competition. (The essay...)
8 My daughter brings friends home. Some of the friends look as though they never wash. (Some of...)
Exercise 12. Read the sentences and answer the questions.
1 The rosebush Sue gave to my little sister is growing beautifully. (Who or what is growing?)
2 The two tall men we saw with Duncan and Jack were their nephews. (Who are the uncles and who are the nephews?)
3 The man my mother was working for before she met my father was very intelligent, but also very disorganised. (Who was disorganised?)
4 A woman who lives near my sister has just won the national lottery. (Has my sister won the lottery?)
5 The newspaper which first made contact with the kidnappers telephoned the police immediately. (Who telephoned?)
6 Police called to a house in Aston, Hampshire, after neighbours reported cries for help found 18-year-old J... E... stuck in a cat-flap after being locked out of his home. (Who found him?)
Exercise 13. Correct or improve the sentences if necessary. Tick any which are already correct.
4. There is very little that escapes the senior partner's eagle eye.
5. He'll be playing with the same racquet, with which he always plays.
6. Next Tuesday I'll have to visit the dentist again which I detest.
7. That's the man who’s dog I look after in the summer.
8. The reason which I’m tired is that I didn’t sleep well last night.
9. The town which Shakespeare was born is called Stratford-upon-Avon.
10. There’s the place which Sam’s car broke down.
11. The office the boss works is very luxurious.
12. Jane, mother is my hairdresser, is getting married next month.
Exercise 14. Odd man out. Underline the word in each line which is not suitable. Give your comments.
1.In spite of although despite whilst as soon as
2. when as long as whose immediately before
3. therefore so as to in order that for
4. since consequently therefore as a result
5. on account of so...that due to because
6. as if even though as though
1.8. DISCOURSE MARKERS
Exercise 1. Try to find the correct definition match for these linking words and think of appropriate Russian equivalents. Then check your answers in the table below.
By the way, incidentally In other words
Anyway, in any case
At least
The thing is
In fact, indeed
Or rather
Actually
But In fact
As a matter of fact
All in all, in short
And indeed
I) provides an example of the 1st sentence
2) summing up points already made
3) adding precise information
4) correcting wrong information
5) admitting smth embarrassing
6) disagreeing with an opinion
7) used in the 2nd sentence to strengthen the 1st
8) used to contradict the idea in the previous sentence
9) admitting the facts, but still having doubts about them
10) organization linker, showing the order of one’s points
II) shows what happens after a long wait or effort (+\- result)
12) suggests a contrast earlier or later
13) suggests a long wait with positive outcome
Namely | 14) narrative linker used to describe a film A |
| book, play |
Firstly, secondly | 15) add extra points (might mean very import |
| tant ones) |
Such as | 16) main point linker meaning “whatever the |
| truth may be ” |
Finally, eventually | 17) main point linker acting as explanation of |
| the previous sentence. |
Especially | 18) comes before the exact word |
At last | 19) explains a point in simpler language |
Including | 20) comes after the exact word before a de |
| script ion |
At the start, at the end | 21) weakens the previous statement, which |
| may be too categorical |
In the beginning, in the end | 22) indicates similar characteristics |
At first | 23) corrects the 1st sentence by giving more |
| exact information |
At the beginning | 24) means “in particular |
used for inclusion |
|
in a word | 25) tells us the chronological point |
Last but not least | 26)suggests an umbrella nomination for a |
| number of points |
in the first place | 27) organization linker, introducing reason |
For example, for instance. |
|
e.g. " (— exempli gratia ") | 28) introduces a further explanation or jus |
| tification for the statement |
to start with, to begin with, |
|
for a start |
|
A fter all |
|
... something that you might need to know about discourse markers |
Main Point Linkers (anyway, in any case, the thing is) Anyway, in any case 1. These two show that we are coming (or returning) to the main point, and that what we have just said is not so important. The meaning is often "whatever the truth may be ". 2. Anyway is used mainly in speech. In any case can be used both in speech and in formal writing. 3. We sometimes use anyhow and at any rate in conversation with the same meaning as anyway. |
The thing is...
It comes before the main point linkers, when the
main point also acts as the explanation of a previous sentence. It is used mainly in conversation.
is doing badly.)
I am worried about Cathy. The thing is, she hates her school. (The fact that Cathy hates her school explains why die speaker is worried.)
John: Why don't you many me, Michaela?
Michaela: The thing is, John, I don't want to marry
anyone. (Michaela explains why she won't marry John.)
Extra Point Linkers (by the way, incidentally)
I By the way and incidentally can both occur in speech. Incidentally sounds a little more factual/ formal, but the difference is more one of personal style. In writing incidentally is more likely to occur.
1. By the way and incidentaly can introduce an interesting (but not important) fact about a topic - as if you were saying something 'in brackets'. However, they can introduce points that are VERY important to you.
Examples:
I met Dita in Athenes. By the way, she sends you her regards. She says she's going to stay for another year. (By the way used to insert an extra point into the conversation. The extra point is not so important to the speaker.)
So that's the situation. By the way, this is a secret, so don't mention it to anyone. (Here the extra point about secrecy is very important.)
Our German subsidiary has sent an order for another 5,000 copies of the book. Incidentally, their sales are up 45% this year. (Incidentally before an additional fact. By the way is also possible, but sounds less 'factual'.)
Exemplification and Summation (for example, for instance, all in all, in short)
Examplification: for example and for instance;e.g.
(Used in the second sentence they provide an ex- of the first sentence.)
Summation (all in all and in short)
(these markers are used to sum up points already made)
Clarification (namely, i.e., for example/ e.g., such as, including, especially)
Namely versus i.e.
1, Namely comes after a descriptive phrase for an item, before the exact word.
2. i.e. can be used the opposite way from namely. It often comes after the exact word for an item, and before a descriptive phrase. It can be read aloud as 'that is' or 'that is to say' as well as 'eye-ee'.
3. Both namely and i.e. tend to be used after long phrases. After short phrases a comma or dash may be enough, without any linking word.
(Just to remind):
Such as has the meaning 'with the characteristics
of[1]
Including indicates the meaning of inclusion. Especially suggests the importance of the object.
Organisation and Narrative Linkers (firstly, at
first; finally, at last, etc.)
Organisation Linkers: firstly (first), secondly
(second), etc., next, then, finally (lastly). __
Example:
There have been many unpleasant geniuses, e.g. the Italian composer Gesualdo. (We use e.g. with a noun phrase, but not to begin a sentence.)
Geniuses can be very unpleasant as people. For example/ for instance, Gesualdo, the sixteenth-century Italian composer, was a murderer.
Example:
He was a kind husband and father, generous to friends, considerate to strangers, and forgiving to enemies. All in all/ in short, he was a good man.
Examples:
Professor Fry is studying the largest aquatic mammal (! descriptive phrase) namely the Blue Whale (! exact word).
Professor Fry is studying the Blue Whale (! exact word), i.e. the largest aquatic mammal (! descriptive phrase).
Examples:
Mammals such as the dolphin and the whale have adapted to living in water.
In the twenty-first century spaceships will visit all the planets, including Pluto.
Professor Fry has studied various aquatic mammals, especially whales and dolphins.
They are used to show how you organise points in your speech.
Narrative Linkers: at first, at the start, at the beginning, in the beginning, at the end, in the end, at last, finally, eventually.
A note: narrative linkers can be chronological and contrasting, and are not all used quite in the same way.
Chronological narrative linkers are: at the start, at the beginning, at the end.
Contrasting narrative linkers are: at first, in the beginning, in the end, at last, finally, eventually.
1. At first and in the beginning indicate a contrast later (we expect to hear, but later the circumstances changed), while in the end suggests a contrast earlier (before there were problems and uncertainty).
2. Finally and eventually suggest a long wait. The outcome may be positive or negative.
3. At last indicates a very long wait with a positive outcome.
Rephrasing and correcting: in other words, or rather, at least
1. We use in other words when we EXPLAIN a point, often in simpler language.
2. We use or rather to correct something we have just said.
3. We use at least when we correct ourselves with a 'weaker' statement, one which doesn4 go so far. It usually takes a comma and can begin a sentence or come after or.
Reality markers: (but) in fact, (and) indeed, actually, as a matter of fact Two uses of in fact:
1. The second sentence strengthens the first.
2. The second clause contradicts the idea in the previous clause.
Two uses of indeed:
1, Indeed sounds a little more formal than in fact. We can use it instead of in fact when we want to strengthen our previous sentence. (Notice that we cannot use indeed instead of but in fact.)
1. We can use and indeed when there is some evidence to support a fact, but we still have DOUBTS. The meaning is 'it is certainly true that, but..,)
Actually and as a matter of fact
Exapmle:
Firstly I'd like to deal with the present situation. Then (second/ next) I will deal with our future plans.
Examples:
At the start (at the beginning), die hero is rich and successful. At the end, everything has gone wrong.
Exapmles:
He did not reach the required standard. In other words, he failed. (The second sentence explains the meaning of the first, using simpler language.)
It was late at night when he caine home. Or rather, it was early in the morning. (The second sentence corrects the first by giving more exact information.)
He's asleep. At least, his eyes are closed. ("Eyes closed" doesn’t go so far as "being asleep".)
He's leaving on Monday - or at least, he says he is.
Examples:
I don't like him. In fact, I can't stand him.
People think I don't like Harry, but in fact, he is a good friend.
Our results this year have been satisfactory. Indeed, they are the best results we have had for several years. (A formal report; the second sentence strengthens the first. The meaning is the same as with in fact.)
He was said to be 110 years old, and indeed he could remember events from long ago. Nevertheless, I never found out his real age. (— I admit he was old, but have doubts about whether or not he was 110.)
Examples:
I'm going to stay with someone I know in Paris. Actually, he’s my cousin. (Adding precise information; we could also use as a matter of fact here.)
A: 1 thought Simon had a degree in language s.______
something embarrassing.
2. As a matter of fact can be used in speech and in writing, in the same way as actually, especially when dealing with facts. However, it can sound too strong in matters of opinion or in an embarrassing situation.
B: Actually, he didn’t go to university. He learnt Japanese when he worked in Tokyo. (Correcting wrong information; we could also use as a matter of fact here.)
A: I didn’t like the singer very much.
B: Actually, I thought she was excellent. (Disagreeing about an opinion; as a matter of fact would sound rather strong here.)
A: Have you cleaned your room yet?
B: Actually, I was meaning to do it this afternoon. (Admitting something embarrassing; as a matter of fact could sound rather aggressive here.)
1.9. OPINION MARKERS
Exercise 1. What kind of attitude to the fact do opinion markers of each category indicate. There’s some room for you to add the missing opinion HIJIiIh'in in each category. How would you express the WRITER’S or SPEAKER'S attitude to the fact in Russian.
1) I personally think that your custom of burning dead bodies is much more hygienic than burying them, as we do.
2) The girl who’d just been appointed there was, from my point of view, utterly hopeless, useless.
i) Most of the negotiations between unions and management break down because of a lack of trust, so the Church, in my view, has a role to play in the real world.
4) In all honesty, aren’t there already far too many pages of scientific research published every week, every month, every year for us to read and absorb?
5) Mr Сameron, my husband hasn’t been well. It’s... Frankly, it's not something I can explain over the phone.
6) To be honest, I faint at the sight of blood.
I) Hypnotists tell us that they cannot make us do anything that we would not normally want to do. Realistically, however, we all have only limited power with which to resist suggestions from those in authority.
H) "Keeping old age at bay is one reason for playing again,” he said. ’’More seriouslv, I thoroughly enjoy the game and was pleased the club asked me to help in whatever capacity I could."
9) With a wave of her hand she was off, literally running up the path before Sven realized what had happened.
10) Until I or some other MPs get the opportunity to raise this matter in parliament, we will not know the government's position, though, to be fain I believe ministers can't really do much about it anyway.
1 l)In the circumstances he was being pretty brave, to put it mildly.
12) Conversation in the room during the meal was, to say the least, difficult.
13) They are family orientated holidays and to put it bluntly they don’t want old people there. It’s not a nice thing to say, but families don't want them.
14) We cannot, to put it crudely, open a baby's head and look inside.
15) Generally speaking, even very young children are quite good at making the most of their pocket-money.
16) The refugees who were to be involved in the resettlement programmes fell, broadly speaking, into two categories.
17) In general, they like quick results; so anything requiring long periods off study or work is not likely to appeal.
18) "Can I leave money to my cat?" — "Strictly speaking, an animal can't inherit, although an animal charity can."
19) Women, statistically speaking, receive 75 per cent of the average wage for men.
20) I ought not to tell you but I will, since you’re in the family, so to speak.
(to be continued...)
Some more opinion Markers!
1) "Do you know Davina Norris?"— "Of course I do. Everybody knows Davina Norris." (= "That’s so obvious, why say it?")
2) Obviously, at an eighty per cent tax rate there's going to be a lot more tax evasion.
3) She clutched something against her chest. It was a grey manilla envelope, and whatever it contained was clearly the cause of all this anxiety and tension.
4) Each was wearing a long white coat and one had a stethoscope round his neck. They were unmistakably doctors.
5) All sorts of stories seem to go around. Maybe people make them up because nothing is actually known.
6) Quite likely, however, the refugees may resist making contact with charitable organizations.
7) Here is, potentially, a machine with something approaching a real brain.
8) Truly, love is blind.
9) Many of them wrongly assume that the surviving partner w'll inherit whereas, in reality, he or she may receive nothing.
10) Surely you don’t think I went off in my swimming costume, murdered my husband and pushed him into the water, and then returned to change?
11) Food and drink culture in Britain is surely changing, has surely changed over the last two decades.
12) Food and drink culture in Britain is surely changing, has surely changed over the last two decades.
13) ’’Teaching from a blackboard is boring and undoubtedly turns people off,” he claimed.
14) Without any doubt there is need for further change in Europe.
15) Apparently your father was warned, but never said a word.
16) He stayed here a short while. Presumably he booked in like every other visitor.
17) A woman could rub this material into her face and it would supposedly eradicate the lines on her face.
18) Although theoretically the land was owned by the State, the nobles and the monasteries held large estates, and peasants also owned land.
19) I can recall a time when officially your position didn’t exist.
20) Ideally, the school should have spacious, open buildings and be in open grounds.
21) It was nominally a non-political trip, but this did not unduly inhibit the President’s campaigning style.
22) There is no evidence that he knew, though it remains hypothetically possible.
21) The diet consists basically of fresh meat, fish, fruit and vegetables, with water to drink.
24) Essentially, given the potential of modem technology and large-scale producing organizations, there is no technological reason for hunger or inadequate shelter, medical care and the like.
25) Angel and I were off to another life, another world, which was hopefully a much happier one than the one we had known at the orphanage.
I) strangely, the idea that she might have left Berlin did not occur to me until I got to the station.
2) I smiled and kissed him. Funnily enough, I was suddenly very hungry.
3) Suddenly and inexplicably I began to sob. I hadn’t cried for years and why now?
4) Incredibly, it seems that he was unaware that he had shaken off his pursuers.
5) Rose was mostly liked and respected as an employer, but inevitably she had her critics.
6) There was silence round the table. Predictably it was broken by Janet.
7) "His throat's been cut," I said unnecessarily, just to say something.
8) I begged him to see another doctor. Characteristically he was unwilling, 1
9) Everybody thinks you ought to take a holiday in any case. Will you come? All expenses paid, naturally.
10) Once when she slipped, her bicycle headlamp fell out of her pocket and skidded away down the track; luckily it wasn’t broken.
11) Sadly for company morale, and perhaps for its future ability to recruit the best graduates, shocked employees read about the sackings in tho newspapers.
12) Miraculously, ten survivors had crawled out of the terrible wreckage, hysterical, astonished to be alive.
13) Mercifully there is no snow on the ground. Walking should not be hard, j
14) Tragically and unexpectedly he died six months later.
15) And ironically, the evidence suggests that, by feeding animals and our* selves with antibiotics the bacteria and viruses develop resistance, so new drugs have to be invented
16) Conveniently, he had developed amnesia about that part of his life.
17) Suspiciously, the "sickness" rate jumps sharply on Fridays and Mondays
18) The anxious expression on the doctor's face made her, ridiculously, feel sorrier for him than for herself.
19) Grab a friend, preferably a fellow job-seeker, and run through severe mock interviews. Keep switching roles. Practise, practise, practise.
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