As we can notice, Bush’s rhetoric questions do not require any answer; it serves the purpose of calling the hearer’s attention to a particular point in the speech.
Also, there are a lot of enumerations:
“I'm glad that Republicans and Democrats and independents are working together to advance human liberty.”
“In fact, Ronald Reagan's words were courageous and optimistic and entirely correct. ”
“Our commitment to democracy is tested in countries like Cuba and Burma and North Korea and Zimbabwe -- outposts of oppression in our world.”
“The people in these nations live in captivity, and fear and silence.”
Especially in the last sentence we see how Bush, using homogeneous adverbials, causes a stir.
What is more, gradation can be found in this speech.
“Freedom is worth fighting for, dying for and standing for …”
“It teaches cooperation, the free exchange of ideas, and the peaceful resolution of differences. ”
“This strategy requires the same persistence and energy and idealism we have shown before.”
The phrase “fighting for, dying for, standing for” emphasizes significance, importance, and creates emotional tension in the utterance.
Another peculiarity is metaphor.
“ Liberty is both the plan of Heaven for humanity, and the best hope for progress here on Earth”
“Many Middle Eastern governments now understand that military dictatorship and theocratic rule are a straight, smooth highway to nowhere. ”
“We believe that liberty is the design of nature. ”
As a lot of scientists suppose politicians suppose that the aim of using metaphors is to appeal to emotions and to include and affect the audience. Also, we can observe how it makes language more various.
So, as we can notice, a lot of stylistic constructions are used in George Bush’s speech. The usage of it helps to emphasize suitable issues and to imply positive perception.
Now, let us analyze lexico-grammatical devices which also influence on success of the speech.
The speech begins and ends with the thankfulness which is typical for this genre of public speaking:
“ Thank you all very much … thanks for inviting me to join.”
“And I thank you. May God bless your work. And may God continue to bless America.”
We can find examples of using evaluating adjectives.
“Thanks for the warm welcome.”
“We've witnessed, in little over a generation, the swiftest advance of freedom in the 2,500 year story of democracy.”
“Liberty is both the plan of Heaven for humanity, and the best hope for progress here on Earth”
“Each of you at this Endowment is fully engaged in the great cause of liberty.”
The ex-President used it for the purpose of expressing his personal opinion and attitude, to judge or to determine the significance or worth.
In contrast with Barack Obama’s speech there are a lot of numerals which give accuracy to the speech.
“ In June of 1982, President Ronald Reagan spoke at Westminster Palace and declared, the turning point had arrived in history.”
“ Sixty years of Western nations excusing and accommodating the lack of freedom in the Middle East did nothing to make us safe”
“Your mandate was important 20 years ago ”
“In Iraq, the Coalition Provisional Authority and the Iraqi Governing Council are also working together to build a democracy -- and after three decades of tyranny, this work is not easy.”
In addition to lexical constructions, we can notice the usage established and generally understood terms:
“I appreciate the members of Congress who are here …”
“A global nuclear standoff with the Soviet Union ended peacefully -- as did the Soviet Union. ”
“He argued that Soviet communism had failed”
The structure of political speech implies the usage of scientific elements: statistics, terms or researches.
After analyzing the speech we can see that grammatical devices are used in this Bush’s speech as well as stylistic and grammatical ones:
We can observe the usage of contractions I’ll; will not; have not; is not
“…we can be certain the author of freedom is not indifferent to the fate of freedom.”
“They will not, and should not, look like us.”
“The sacrifices of Americans have not always been recognized or appreciated, yet they have been worthwhile”.
Such constructions imply confidence that Americans will not give up at struggle for better future.
In contrast with the Obama’s speech not only Present times are used but also Past times to remind people about past events and make them take pride in America.
“… that freedom had a momentum which would not be halted ”
“The great democratic movement President Reagan described was already well underway”.
“Because we and our allies were steadfast, Germany and Japan are democratic nations that no longer threaten the world”.
There are a lot of genitive cases by means of preposition “of” and verbal constructions, respectively:
“The success of freedom is not determined by some dialectic of history ”
“Muslim men and women are good citizens of India and South Africa, of the nations of Western Europe, and of the United States of America .”
“Instead of dwelling on past wrongs and blaming others, governments in the Middle East need to confront real problems”
“And working democracies always need time to develop -- as did our own”
Also as Obama, Bush used inclusive pronouns but not a lot. He used the pronoun “I” ten times in the speech. In contrast, he used the pronouns “we”, “our” and “us” 40 times to show fellow interests.
“ I believe every person has the ability and the right to be free.”
“…this makes us patient and understanding as other nations are at different stages of this journey.”
“And we will meet this test”.
To sum up we can say that stylistic devices such as parallelism, anaphora, quotation, metaphor, enumeration, gradation and rhetorical questions, lexical peculiarities, including beginning and ending with a special formula,, evaluating adjectives, generally understood terms and numerals and grammatical peculiarities such as using of the 1st person pronoun, using of contractions I’ll; won’t; haven’t; isn’t, a vast using of present times and past times and genitive case by means of preposition “of” are presented in George Bush’s speech.
The research we have carried out show that all these constructions make language more vivid alive. They spur the audience into action because political speeches are not primarily about politics itself, but are a way to present current issues in a way to so that people realize the problems and the visions of the politicians.
The last political speech we are going to analyze is an Address at the Democratic National Convention in Denver: "United We Can Build a Better America" by Hillary Clinton.
Let us start with analyzing stylistic peculiarities which are presented in the speech. The speech starts with repetition:
“A proud mother. A proud Democrat. A proud American. And a proud supporter of Barack Obama.”
“This is a fight for the future. And it's a fight we must win.”
Repetition is one of the most frequently used devices in political speeches. For instance, Clinton used four times the word “proud” emphasizing that, probably, everyone should be proud of his family, of his nation and will be proud of his future President.
Then we find repetition, accompanied by gradation in the middle of the speech and then in the end, respectively:
“Those are the reasons I ran for President. Those are the reasons I support Barack Obama. And those are the reasons you should too. ”
“I want you to think about your children and grandchildren come election day. And think about the choices your parents and grandparents made that had such a big impact on your life and on the life of our nation.”
The next stylistic peculiarity is anaphora and we meet it twice in the speech:
“ I will always remember the single mom who had adopted two kids with autism, didn't have health insurance and discovered she had cancer. I will always remember the young man in a Marine Corps t-shirt who waited months for medical care and said to me: "Take care of my buddies; a lot of them are still over there....and then will you please help take care of me? I will always remember the boy who told me his mom worked for the minimum wage and that her employer had cut her hours. I will always be grateful to everyone from all fifty states, Puerto Rico and the territories, who joined our campaign on behalf of all those people left out and left behind by the Bush Administration.”
“ John McCain says the economy is fundamentally sound. John McCain doesn't think that 47 million people without health insurance is a crisis. John McCain wants to privatize Social Security.”
Presumably, by repetition “I will always” Clinton wanted to remind that it is the duty of every American. Also, there is epiphora which is used only once but we can notice that in four sentences we see parallel constructions. It was used to keep it in mind that people must not give up.
“If you hear the dogs, keep going. If you see the torches in the woods, keep going. If they're shouting after you, keep going. Don't ever stop, keep going. If you want a taste of freedom, keep going. Even in the darkest of moments, ordinary Americans have found the faith to keep going.”
Other cases of using parallel constructions are:
“No way. No how. No McCain.”
“You taught me so much, you made me laugh, and... you even made me cry.”
The next is an antithesis which is based on relative opposition which arises out of objectively contrasting pairs:
“More economic stagnation...and less affordable health care.”
“ More high gas prices...and less alternative energy.”
“ More jobs getting shipped overseas...and fewer jobs created here.”
“ More war... less diplomacy.”
The speaker’s intention was to show the contrast between, for example, high prices and the lack of alternative energy. Probably, it helps to see what are the problems to be solved.
Another stylistic peculiarity we can see is rhetorical questions. As we know, the rhetoric question does not require any answer; The speaker used it because it serves the purpose of calling the hearer’s attention to a particular point in the speech:
“Were you in this campaign just for me? “
“Or were you in it for that young Marine and others like him? “
“Were you in it for that mom struggling with cancer while raising her kids? “
“Were you in it for that boy and his mom surviving on the minimum wage? Were you in it for all the people in this country who feel invisible?”
Also, there are a lot of enumerations:
“For me, it's been a privilege to meet you in your homes, your workplaces, and your communities. ”
“When the polls have closed, and the ads are finally off the air, it comes down to you -- the American people, your lives, and your children's futures. ”
“Your stories reminded me every day that America's greatness is bound up in the lives of the American people -- your hard work, your devotion to duty, your love for your children, and your determination to keep going, often in the face of enormous obstacles.”
The speaker used “the American people, your lives, and your children's futures” to point out, probably, that these elections will change their lives for better.
As Obama and Bush, Clinton used metaphor to make her speech more emphatic: либо должности, либо инициалы рядом с фамилиями, что за фамильярность)
“That is our duty, to build that bright future, and to teach our children that in America there is…”
“ Our heart goes out to Stephanie's son, Mervyn, Jr, and Bill's wife, Rebecca, who traveled to Denver to join us at our convention.”
Another device is quotation or references to other people.
“I will always remember the young man in a Marine Corps t-shirt who waited months for medical care and said to me: "Take care of my buddies; a lot of them are still over there....and then will you please help take care of me?"
“He said he just didn't know what his family was going to do.”
Also as Obama and Bush, Clinton used these devices to prove her idea by expressing other people’s opinion.
So, as we can notice, a lot of stylistic constructions are used in Hillary Clinton’s speech. The usage of it helps to make speech more persuasive.
Now, let us analyze lexico-grammatical devices which are also important. The speech begins with the direct address to the audience: “My friends” and ends as any American political speech with thankfulness and blessing: “Thank you so much. God bless America and Godspeed to you all.”
Also, we can find examples of using evaluating adjectives.
“The biggest deficit in our nation's history.”
“… from ending discrimination to promoting unionization to providing help for the most important job there is: caring for our families.”
“And you haven't worked so hard over the last 18 months, or endured the last eight years, to suffer through more failed leadership.”
Presumably, as she is a famous person, a lot of people will follow her will take her pieces of advice. As we see, the first care must be care for our families.
In contrast with Barack Obama’s speech there are also a lot of numerals they give accuracy to the speech.
“I haven't spent the past 35 years in the trenches advocating for children…”
“And you haven't worked so hard over the last 18 months, or endured the last eight years, to suffer through more failed leadership.”
“And after so many decades - 88 years ago on this very day - the 19th amendment guaranteeing women the right to vote would be forever enshrined in our Constitution.”
What is more, there are examples of the usage of contextual synonyms:
“To create a health care system that is universal, high quality, and affordable so that parents no longer have to choose between care for themselves or their children or be stuck in dead end jobs simply to keep their insurance.”.
“Leaders who can help us show ourselves and the world that with our ingenuity, creativity, and innovative spirit, there are no limits to what is possible in America.”
“He is pragmatic, tough, and wise.”
The speaker’s intention, especially in the last case, was directed to describing Obama’s personal traits which are important for being President.
After analyzing the speech we can see that grammatical devices are used in this Clinton’s speech as well as stylistic and grammatical ones:
We can observe the usage of contractions I’ll; won’t; haven’t; isn’t
“This won't be easy.”
“ I will always be grateful to everyone from all fifty states, Puerto Rico and the territories, who joined our campaign on behalf of all those people left out and left behind by the Bush Administration.”
“I haven't spent the past 35 years in the trenches advocating for children, campaigning for universal health care, helping parents balance work and family, and fighting for women's rights at home and around the world...”
The usage of these constructions helps Clinton to promise that all problems will be solved, that people will be happy and that She will be grateful to everyone who support Obama.
In addition, we can find numerous examples of modal verbs:
“To create a health care system that is universal, high quality, and affordable so that parents no longer have to choose between care for themselves or their children or be stuck in dead end jobs simply to keep their insurance.”
“But remember, before we can keep going, we have to get going by electing Barack Obama president.”
“And those are the reasons you should too.”
He knows government must be about "We the people" not "We the favored few."
Hillary Clinton used it in her speech to indicate obligations, to name reasons why people have to elect Obama as the American President: “those are the reasons you should too.”
There are a lot of genitive cases by means of preposition “of”:
“To make America once again a nation of immigrants and a nation of laws.”
“To bring fiscal sanity back to Washington and make our government an instrument of the public good, not of private plunder.”
“We need a President who understands that the genius of America has always depended on the strength and vitality of the middle class.”
Also as Obama, Clinton used inclusive pronouns. She used the pronoun “I” 6 times in the speech. In contrast, she used the pronouns “we”, “our” and “us” 75 times. Such device makes people feel that everyone is individual, that everyone is important for the government.
“And to join with our allies to confront our shared challenges, from poverty and genocide to terrorism and global warming.”
“ We need to elect Barack Obama because we need a President who understands that America can't compete in a global economy by padding the pockets of energy speculators, while ignoring the workers whose jobs have been shipped overseas.”
“Leaders who can help us show ourselves and the world that with our ingenuity, creativity, and innovative spirit, there are no limits to what is possible in America.”
As for times, Present Simple and Future Simple are mainly used:
“This won't be easy.”
“ Progress never is.”
“ But it will be impossible if we don't fight to put a Democrat in the White House.”
Probably, there is no sense to speak about problems in Past Tenses so Clinton speaks about it in Present times and its solutions in Future times, emphasizing that these solutions depend on the results of elections: “will be impossible if we don't fight to put a Democrat in the White House.”
So, we can say that stylistic devices such as parallelism, anaphora, quotation, epiphora, antithesis, enumeration, gradation and rhetorical questions, lexical constructions, including beginning with a special formula,, evaluating adjectives, contextual synonyms and numerals and grammatical devices such as using of the 1st person pronoun, using of contractions I’ll; won’t; haven’t; isn’t, a vast using of present times and future times and modal verbs and genitive case by means of preposition “of” are presented in Hillary Clinton’s speech.
The research we have carried out shows that all these devices work to get success. The purpose of these devices is to affect the listener in a way that feels natural to the audience and what makes people believe politicians.
To sum up, we can say that every speech is individual and the purposes of speaking are different. But we can find common peculiarities of these three political speeches. Let us start with stylistic devices. Firstly, B.Obama and G. Bush and H.Clinton used anaphora abundantly. As we have already mentioned that anaphora is one of the frequently used stylistic devices in the English language that make the speech more powerful and impressive. Secondly, there are a lot of quotations in three speeches. Quotations are used for proving idea. Thirdly, we can find many cases of using enumeration. Enumeration makes the speech more impressive and helps the politicians to stress the exact part of the speech. We have found out that enumeration can be accompanied by gradation. And the last stylistic device which is characteristic for the speeches is metaphor. As we have noticed, the speaker needs to use various language tools in order to make the message persuasive and comprehensible to the listener. Politicians seek to comply with the emotions, desires and needs of the audience. These are common stylistic peculiarities by Obama, Bush and Clinton. Now, let us consider common lexico-grammatical constructions. Each speech begins with thankfulness or address to the audience and ends with blessing people and America because the structure of political speech is well-defined. The beginning and the ending must be emotionally contagious and filled with a sincere desire to involve other for something important and significant. What is more, evaluating adjectives are presented in every case. Such peculiarity in political discourse seems to be one of the main tools for propaganda and persuasion. The next common device is a big amount of numerals. It is mainly used, when politicians remind people about historical events of the past of the country to make audience take pride of the USA and be patriots. As for grammatical devices, using of contractions I’ll; won’t; haven’t; isn’t and genitive case by means of preposition “of” we can meet in three speeches. All speeches are organized by using mostly Present Simple and Present Perfect but Future Simple and Past Simple are mentioned too. And the last common feature is the usage of inclusive pronouns such as “we”, “our” and “us” from 40 times up to 142 times. It shows that speaker is a part of society and all they do – they do together. Thus, we have carried out the research of analyzing different devices of three speeches of American politicians and study out the common ones.
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this research was to study the aspects of political public speaking at the modern stage of the English language development and to explore its peculiarities. It was reached by completing theoretical and practical tasks.
For preparing the theoretical basis of the problem we considered to achievements of foreign scientists in the sphere of public speaking, political speaking and political speeches. According to the theoretical research, scientists distinguish between three types of public speaking. We have carried out the research of political public speaking. Analyzing foreign literature we have discovered a number of stylistic, lexical and grammatical peculiarities of political speeches. As there are a lot of scientific researches concerning this problem we have come to conclusion that the knowledge of using a lot of devices in public political speaking is of immediate interest today because every day a lot of politicians deliver speeches and the main purpose of it to persuade the audience. Speakers know that if they can engage the consciousness of the audience and establish good rapport, if they can build on the emotion that resides in their bosoms, the message, especially when it is one of hope and promise, will impinge more strongly.
The analysis of three particular political speeches we have carried out in the practical part shows that there are define rules of making political speeches in order to be successful. which rules do you mean?
We have also discovered common stylistic, lexical and grammatical peculiarities which are typical of such genre as political public speaking and its influence on listeners. As for stylistic devices there are anaphora, enumeration, quotation and metaphor. As for lexico-grammatical devices there are a special address to the audience, abundant usage of numerals, evaluating adjectives, the presence of Present and Future times, genitive cases, definite grammatical constructions and a vast usage of inclusive pronouns.
What is more, we have also found out the influence of these devices. what’s meant? Unless the audience can be emotionally involved, messages will seem inert and devoid of feeling, and will usually go unheard or unheeded. That is why it is important to know all these devices to create the effect of sincerity and frankness.
Above all, politicians try to make good speech in order to be readily remembered, to motivate audience that gathers inspiration and hope from what is said and how it is said, an audience that is emotionally engaged throughout.
Each politician uses different devices because each speech needs to be fashioned to suit the audience, and the message that the speaker wishes to transmit and have remembered.
REFERENCE LIST
см. правила оформления!
1. http://www.public-speaking.org
2. http://www.public-speaking.org
3. http://www.speakingandspeeches.com
4. http://www.linkedin.com
5. http://jameskudooski.hubpages.com
6. http://jameskudooski.hubpages.com
7. http://jameskudooski.hubpages.com
8. http://prokseniya.wordpress.com
9. http://commcourses.com/
10. http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/avoiding-cliches/
11. http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/avoiding-cliches/
12. http://voices.yahoo.com/
13. http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/inaugural-address
14. http://www.ned.org/george-w-bush/remarks-by-president-george-w-bush- at-the-20th-anniversary
15. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu
16. Lloyd Bitzer. The Rhetorical Situation, Philosophy and Rhetoric 1, 1968
17. Jess K. Alberts, Thomas K. Nakayama, Judith N. Martin. Communication in Society, Books a la Carte Edition, 2010
18. Clella Jaffe. Public Speaking, concepts and skills for a diverse society, 4th edition,Wadsworth, 2004
19. Mathew McKay, Martha Davis, Patrick Fanning, Messages: The communication skills book, Second Edition, New Harbinger Publications, Inc, CA 1996
20. Zielinski P. Metaphors and Metonymy in Politics. Selected Aspects.
21. Oxford dictionary, 7th edition, Oxford university press, 2008
приложения – это отдельная структурная часть, она идет с нового листа
Application 1
Inaugural Address
By President Barack Hussein Obama
My fellow citizens: I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for the trust you've bestowed, mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors.
I thank President Bush for his service to our nation -- (applause) -- as well as the generosity and cooperation he has shown throughout this transition.
Forty-four Americans have now taken the presidential oath. The words have been spoken during rising tides of prosperity and the still waters of peace. Yet, every so often, the oath is taken amidst gathering clouds and raging storms. At these moments, America has carried on not simply because of the skill or vision of those in high office, but because we, the people, have remained faithful to the ideals of our forebears and true to our founding documents.
So it has been; so it must be with this generation of Americans.
That we are in the midst of crisis is now well understood. Our nation is at war against a far-reaching network of violence and hatred. Our economy is badly weakened, a consequence of greed and irresponsibility on the part of some, but also our collective failure to make hard choices and prepare the nation for a new age. Homes have been lost, jobs shed, businesses shuttered. Our health care is too costly, our schools fail too many -- and each day brings further evidence that the ways we use energy strengthen our adversaries and threaten our planet.
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