Higher Education in Russia
At present the Russian people are confronted with a number of important and inter-related problems. To solve them it is necessary to create a high material and technical basis and to educate creatively and humanistically minded people. This aim depends to a great extent on the proper organization of higher education in all its forms: full-time, part-time and extra-mural.
The system of higher education in Russia comprises universities, polytechnical institutes and specialized institutes.
The state offers young people a free choice of more than 400 professions requiring high qualifications.
A total of 5 million students now study at the country’s 892 institutes and universities and over 200 of them train engineers for different branches of industry.
The largest educational institutions are universities and polytechnical institutes.
Institutions of higher education or their branches are found in 500 cities and major population centres of Russia. Apart from day-time faculties most institutes offer evening and correspondence courses for students combining work with study in fields where part-time study is possible.
Higher education is free of charge and accessible to all but entrance to the university or to the institute is by competitive examinations. In July and August applicants take examinations to different institutes and universities of the country. Those who pass them become first-year students.
The curricula and training programs provide time for seminars and laboratory classes, in addition to lectures. Special attention is given to senior students’ practical training at industrial enterprises and research institutions.
Nearly all higher educational institutions have student research societies and design offices which unite over one million students. Students have their own self-administration bodies, such as councils of student research societies, commissions on maintenance grants, dormitory councils and headquarters of student work teams.
Studies, research work, social activity of various kinds and sport – they are all part and parcel of students’ life.
PT classes are compulsory for first and second-year students. Many of them are also active members of sports clubs and continue to attend them until their graduation. The most popular sports among students are track-and –field, skiing, volleyball, basketball, gymnastics and swimming. The complete course at the institutes and universities usually lasts five years, in some it may be a little longer or shorter. A graduate has to work for three years, thereby repaying the state for his free education.
Students who have an aptitude and desire for research work may begin postgraduate studies immediately after graduation. A post-graduate course usually lasts three years. To receive the degree of Candidate of Science the student must pass examination in his field, write and present a thesis offering his own solution to an important research problem.
But no matter what – graduate’s future may have to store for him, he will always have a fond memory of his student years, some of the best years of his life.
Notes and words
1. to be confronted with – сталкиваться с
2. to a great extent – в значительной степени
3. to offer (a choice) – предлагать (выбор)
4. to comprise – включать
5. to train (specialists) – готовить
6. branch – зд. филиал
7. to be free of charge – бесплатный
8. accessible – доступный
9. to enter the institute (university) – поступать в институт (университет)
10. competitive examinations – экзамены на конкурсной основе
11. entrance examinations – вступительные экзамены
12. applicant – абитуриент
13. to pass examinations – сдать экзамены
14. curriculum (singular)/ curricula (plural) – курс обучения в колледже (школе)
15. senior student – студент старших курсов
16. research institution – научно-исследовательский институт
17. design office – конструкторское бюро
18. self-administration body – орган самоуправления
19. council of student research societies – совет студенческих научных сообществ
20. commission on maintenance grants – стипендиальная комиссия
21. dormitory council – студенческий совет (в общежитии)
22. headquarters of student work team – штаб студенческого отряда
23. part and parcel – неотъемлемая часть
24. PT classes (physical training classes) – занятия по физической культуре
25. compulsory – обязательный
26. graduate – выпускник
to graduate from the institute (university)
27. thereby – тем самым
28. to have an aptitude – иметь склонность
29. no matter what a graduate’s future may have to store for him – какое бы будущее ни ожидало выпускника
Training of Russian Engineers
Engineers take the discoveries of basic science and translate them into products, structures, facilities and services for the benefit of the world community. Almost all the health-giving and labour-saving devices of modern society – mechanical hearts, artificial kidneys, helicopters and even automated dishwashers – were developed or improved by engineers.
They contribute to the rapid and continuing changes in our world. They rebuild new cities from the old and give new life to outmoded transportation systems. Environmental engineers work to ensure clean air and water for our cities; engineers of all disciplines work to develop new sources of energy.
The development of Soviet industry calls for an extensive system of polytechnical education.
The biggest polytechnical institutes are situated in St. Peterburg, Urals and Siberia. Moscow is famous for its Bauman Higher Technical School.
Polytechnical institutes are major educational and research centres which train engineering personnel in all the key fields of modern industrial production and which conduct research on problems relating to economic growth. Once every five years they offer refresher courses for engineers, scientists and teachers.
Each year thousands of young people enter higher technical schools. The training course in most of them usually lasts from 5 to 6 years.
Generally, the curriculum for the first and second-year students includes such subjects as mathematics, physics, chemistry, strength of materials, elements of machines, drawing, computers and programming, one of the foreign languages and so on. Specialization, as a rule, begins in the third year.
In accordance with a pre-arrange program the profound study of theory is accompanied by practical training, first in specially equipped laboratories and workshops, then at industrial enterprises and research institutions where students can get first-hand knowledge of modern production and its organization.
Every student who gets education for engineering profession should keep in mind that engineers are not only responsible for planning, design, construction and management, but also for safety and welfare of the public which relies on their work.
Notes and words
Higher Education in the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom higher education is given in five main types of institution: the universities, polytechnics, the Open University (which operates by means of radio and TV, correspondence and vocation courses, and by part-time tutors and study counselors), teacher-training college, art and music colleges.
Higher education has evolved in a very diversified fashion within the United Kingdom, and as a result there is no codified system of regulations to cover all varieties of institutions. Nor is there anyone authority which directs higher education as a whole. The administrative structure of higher education for Scotland, for example, differs considerably from that of England.
Universities in Britain get their legal rights and powers from royal charters or some Acts of Parliament. Each university has the right to award its own degree. All universities are autonomous institutions, particularly in matters relating to courses and programs. The main task of the Universities Grants Committee, members of which are pointed by the Secretary of State for Education and Science, is to distribute between university institutions the financial allocations determined by the Government.
Most universities are organized into faculties which may be subdivided into departments.
The teacher-training colleges are specialized institutions which give courses of training for intending teachers. Some polytechnic institutions prepare not only for teaching, but allied professions such as social work. Many universities also have a department of educational studies which gives courses of professional training only for those who are holders of a bachelor’s degree.
Art and music colleges prepare students for various diplomas, one of which is of the same level as the bachelor’s degree. The Royal College of Art possesses the same status as a university.
Access to higher education normally takes place after a minimum of 13 years of primary and secondary education. A pre-condition is success (“passes”) in a certain number of subjects in the general certificate of education (GCE) examination. The conditions vary according to the disciplines in higher education that the candidate wishes to study and according to the level of the examinations themselves: ordinary level (“O” level) or advanced level (“A” level). Most institutions of higher education require passes in the following subjects: English, mathematics or one scientific subject and a foreign language. These represent the minimum for a general education to equip the student for any branch of higher education.
Most universities select their students on the results obtained by them in the general certificate of education. They also take into account reports from head teachers of the secondary schools at which the candidates have studied. Oxford, Cambridge and Durham universities organize their own competitive entrance examinations. Because of the competition for places further criteria of selection other than examination results usually taken into consideration.
The main stage of higher education is devoted to study in depth of one or more subjects or fields. It leads after three or four years to the award of a first degree in arts, science or other fields (law, engineering etc.). This degree is normally the bachelor’s degree.
In some universities and in some polytechnics a new two-year course is being introduced leading to a diploma of higher education (DipHE). This qualification may be terminal or may lead, after one year’s further study to a bachelor’s degree.
A second stage of studies following upon the first degree (postgraduate studies) consists of a deepening of knowledge and greater specification. At a university this leads to the master’s degree, or in some institutions to a bachelor of philosophy degree. According to the subjects chosen, the course for this postgraduate degree lasts one, two or even more years and ends in a formal examination or the presentation of a thesis or both.
The third stage is that of a specification proper and of personal research. At a university it leads, after two year’s additional study and the successful presentation of a thesis to the master of philosophy degree or after some more years of additional studies the candidate may present a thesis for the doctorate of philosophy (DPhil or PhD).
Two kinds of doctor’s degree exist:
Notes and Words
Training and Education of British Engineers
In Great Britain sciences and technological subjects are taught not in specialized institutes but in universities where students live and communicate with people studying most versatile disciplines.
There are almost 50 universities and the same number of polytechnic institutes in Great Britain.
The polytechnics are comprehensive academic communities and being complementary to universities and colleges of education they are involved in all levels of higher education.
The typical polytechnic is composed of colleges of art, technology and commerce. In size the polytechnics vary from less than 1,000 to over 4,000 full-time students and from less than 500 to over 7,000 past-time students.
Polytechnics are not divided clearly either from universities on the one hand or colleges of further education on the other. There are obvious areas of overlap both in their attitudes and in the subjects they teach.
In the polytechnics, as in some of the technologically oriented universities, the fields of study relate principally to scientific applications to industry and commerce. Many of these technologically oriented institutions offer part-time courses. As well as technical and professional training, the polytechnics may offer courses in social sciences and humanities.
Programmes and courses in the polytechnics must be approved by the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA), a body, which like the universities is authorized to award degrees in humanities, sciences, social sciences and technology, as well as numerous diplomas training is considered to be not worse than that of engineers from the Continent where students get their diplomas after studying for five years or even longer. But how do they manage to achieve this level? First of all we’d like to mention a few words about British School education. Children usually begin to study at the age of 5. When they are 15-16 they pass the examinations of ordinary level (“O” level) and those who wish to study at the university pass the examinations of advanced level after thorough studies of three-four subjects for two-three years.
At school pupils who intend to choose science and engineering study elements of higher mathematics, solve problems connected with mechanics and physics. Besides they are offered a wide programme in chemistry, physics and study introduction to digital computer theory and programming as well as application of numerical methods for solving technical problems.
Engineering faculties are usually divided into main fields: civil engineering and building structures, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, electronics and computing, chemical engineering.
The traditional three-year course of studies, as a rule, begins with studying some compulsory subjects are connected with the main ones. Attention is paid here to working out analytical approach to solving simplified “models”. A student should be able to deduce some basic equations. It is thought inadmissible for a student to copy ready equations out of text-books and manipulate with them during practical classes.
It is supposed that a university graduate will be engaged in creative activities in the field chosen by him. No matter where he will work a graduate should be able to develop steadily his theoretical knowledge and competence.
Sometimes in his second year, usually in his third year a student chooses some additional courses which may be of use in his future activity. They may refer to specific branches of industry, for example, shipbuilding, manufacture of textile, food production and so on.
Special attention is paid to writing essays and making designs when a student uses his knowledge acquired during theoretical lectures. The first designs may be quite simple but it is necessary to construct some small device which should be made and checked by a student himself. In the third year the designs are made by small groups and are discussed with a teacher.
Some universities offer the so-called “sandwich course” incorporated in which is undergraduate course with periods of individual training. A student comes to the university for two weeks and then he is working at a plant or a factory acquiring professional experience and making rather simple designs. To continue studies he may attend some local technical college once a week. After working for a year a student returns to the university for a two-year period of intensive studies. Then he again goes to the plant where he spends his fourth year. The whole course is normally of four years duration leading to an honour degree. The “sandwich courses” are available in engineering, applied science and other disciplines but all more or less vocational.
Notes and Words
Higher Education in the United States of America
Educational institutions in the United States reflect the nation’s basic values especially the ideal of equality of opportunity. From elementary school through college, Americans believe that everyone deserves an equal opportunity to get a good education. Americans view their public school system as an educational ladder, rising from elementary school to high school and finally college undergraduate and graduate programs.
Higher education in the USA is the most extensive and versatile system of postschool education in the world. Now a total of over 13 mln students study at almost 3400 American colleges and universities. All of them are quite unique and their specific features are caused first of all by structural differences as for their sizes, functions, training programs, financing and administrative bodies. There are two main types of higher education: state (or public) and private. The main difference between the two is a financial one.
There are considerable differences in the quality of the teaching provided in institutions of higher education. This is to a large degree corrected by several non-governmental regulating organizations.
In a rather general and academic way, it is possible to classify institutions of higher education in the United States of America into four main categories:
The highest body of a college or university is traditionally the board of trustees (or board of regents or board of directors), whose members come from outside the institution and belong to industry or the world of finance etc. The president, elected by the board of trustees, is responsible for the administrative running of the institution. His powers are considerable, especially regarding financial matters and the appointment of academic staff.
Access to higher education is based on the high-school diploma (primary and secondary school-leaving certification) awarded around 18 years of age, after 12 years of primary and secondary studies. Adults who have not completed work for a traditional high-school diploma may earn a high-school equivalency certificate or diploma by means of the “tests of general education development” (GED). Many institutions of higher education select candidates either on results in the high-school diploma or through an entrance examination.
Institutions of technical and semi-professional education award after two or three years a certificate or associated degree (vocational diploma). Studies leading to the same qualification may be undertaken in junior colleges and community colleges.
In universities and colleges the first two-year phase (freshman year and sophomore year) almost always consists of broadly-based studies in humanities, social sciences, applied and natural sciences, fine arts. This phase is aimed at providing general education and preparing for more specialized studies. It represents the first half of the first stage of studies and may be given in arts and science junior colleges, state colleges and universities. It is a prerequisite to more specialized studies.
The first main stage of students, however, may only be provided by universities, state colleges, liberal arts colleges, teacher’s colleges and institutes of technology. It is devoted to more specialized studies and culminates in the bachelor’s degree, which is the first university degree.
In colleges four-year courses in technology train higher technicians.
The second stage of higher education leads, after one or more often, two years study in a university or in some colleges to the master’s degree. Candidates usually have to submit a thesis.
The third stage of higher education is reached after two or three years’ study in a university or college rather in faculties providing traditionally teaching (arts, law, science, etc.) or in specialized schools of engineering, agriculture, architecture, economy, veterinary medicine, etc. This culminates in the doctor’s degree, which is the highest university degree. There are two types of doctor’s degree: the professional doctor’s degree, awarded in medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine, etc., which is professional qualification and the research doctor’s degree, or degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD), awarded after specialized research leading to a thesis, the level of which varies greatly according to the institution. Candidates for the degree of doctor of philosophy usually have to take an examination as well.
In several subjects, but usually in the scientific ones, postdoctoral studies of one or three years’ duration enable holders of degree of doctor of philosophy to acquire further specialized knowledge in their field.
Notes and words
1. ladder – лестница
2. feature – черта, особенность
3. non-governmental regulating organizations – неправительственные координирующие организации
4. “semi-professional” schools – полупрофессиональные училища (профессиональные училища начального уровня)
5. “associate” qualification – профессиональная квалификация
6. to prepare for employment – готовить для использования
7. dental – стоматологический
8. skilled employee – квалифицированный служащий
9. accountancy – бухгалтерское дело (учет)
10. nursing – подготовка младшего медицинского персонала
11. to resemble – быть похожим, сходным
12. junior college – колледж начального уровня
13. liberal arts college – гуманитарный колледж
14. programs … often overlap – программы часто совпадают
15. board of trustees (board of regents, board of directors) – совет попечителей (совет регентов, совет директоров)
16. administrative running – административное управление
17. especially regarding financial matters – особенно в отношении финансовых вопросов
18. appointment of academic staff – назначение штата ученых и преподавателей
19. adult – взрослый человек
20. test of general educational development (GED) – экзамен за полный курс среднего образования
21. associate degree – степень, присуждаемая после получения определенной профессиональной квалификации
22. vocational diploma – диплом о присуждении профессиональной квалификации
23. freshman – студент первого курса (в американских колледжах или университетах)
24. sophomore – студент второго курса (в американских колледжах или университетах)
25. humanities – гуманитарные дисциплины
26. applied sciences – прикладные науки
27. natural sciences – естественные науки
28. fine arts – изобразительное искусство
29. to be aimed at – быть направленным
30. prerequisite – предпосылка
31. higher technician – техник высшей квалификации
32. to submit thesis – представить диссертацию
33. professional doctor’s degree – докторская степень, присуждаемая лицам, имеющим высшую профессиональную квалификацию
34. research doctor’s degree (degree of doctor of philosophy (PhD)) – докторская степень, присуждаемая лицам, имеющим наивысший уровень в области специализированных творческих исследований
Engineering Program
The Basic Engineering Program of most American Universities is designed to meet the need of students who wish to prepare for administrative and academic phases of an engineering career in industry and government. For the engineering science courses in the fundamentals of mathematics and the physical sciences are combined with courses selected from the various engineering fields, thus giving the students an introduction to the major fields of engineering. Emphasis is placed on coordinating with study in engineering science and the mathematical tools of administration, a program of courses in social studies and humanities.
The freshman program in engineering or its equivalent constitutes the only prerequisite to enrollment in the Basic Engineering Program.
The area of program concentration includes required course work in calculus statistical methods, quantitative methods and decision theory in engineering, stochastic theories and deterministic theories in system engineering, industrial administration, engineering economics and law, engineering mechanics and an introduction to digital computer theory. In addition a senior thesis is required.
Six additional courses in engineering are required by the student in consultation with his adviser to achieve a balanced exposure to technical subjects. Such study may be chosen from: fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, environmental geology, polymers, engineering materials, nuclear engineering, computer science and transportation systems.
For the student with well defined academic objectives, special emphasis may be placed in a selected area. In consultation with adviser he can develop program which combines engineering studies with studies in social sciences and the humanities.
There is a balance of studies in the humanities and social sciences. A student may select between ten and fourteen courses in the liberal arts, the number depending on his interests and the extent to which he has advanced in one or more subjects.
The Basic Engineering thesis is a one-term thesis written normally during the spring term of senior year. The thesis topic may be non-technical as well as technical on an approved subject of the student’s own choosing.
The main task of this program is to generate the world’s future industrial leaders. To be competitive in our increasingly high tech world, future captains of industry must be steeped in engineering as well as business. Life-long learning is and must be a part of an engineer’s professional life.
Notes and words
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