Discourse markers are linguistic expressions used to signal the relation of an utterance to its immediate context, with the primary function of bringing to the listener's attention a particular kind

DISCOURSE MARKERS

The Issue

Discourse markers are linguistic expressions used to signal the relation of an utterance to its immediate context, with the primary function of bringing to the listener's attention a particular kind of linkage of the upcoming utterance with the immediate discourse context (Redeker, 1990).

Some examples of discourse markers in English are: "well", "now", '"actually", and "OK".

A conversation is "much less lively and less 'personal' without [discourse markers] signalling receipt of information, agreement and involvement." (Stenstrom, 1994: 17).

Discourse markers are used in the prompts of automated telephone service dialogues in order to create and maintain this sense of a more lively and personal relationship with the user.

Some commonly used discourse markers

The discourse markers below have all been used in recent research into new dialogue designs carried out as part of the SPOTLIGHT project. Click on in the example boxes to hear recorded samples of the prompts in action.

Well

"Well" serves various functions in discourse depending on the context and its position in the utterance. Stenstrom states that "well" at the beginning of a turn serves as a response marker to what has gone before.

Example

Well, I can also give you like Funds Transfer, Item Search, Order Statement or Change TIN.

Here the "well" at the beginning of the prompt is used in response to the user's request for another service (within a banking application). It serves to accept what the user has requested before moving onto to respond to that request. In this way, it forms a cohesive tie within the dialogue.

Now

"Now" at the beginning of a turn is used as a transition marker, introducing a new topic and changing the direction of the discourse. In the case of automated dialogues, where the application may be very specific, "now" can be used to move from one part of the dialogue to another.

Example

Now, would you like to select another service?

This prompt would be played after a user had completed a particular transaction. One part of the dialogue is complete (for example a request for balance information has been made and the information given). The dialogue then moves onto something new: whether the user has any other banking transactions to complete.

Actually

Smith and Jucker (2000) claim that "actually" gives processing instructions to a listener about how the particular utterance should be understood.

For the hearer, use of "actually" highlights the fact that something is now being said that might not have been expected in this context but that is relevant nevertheless (Lenk 1998: 167).

"Actually" can therefore be used to signal to the hearer that although what follows is relevant to the ongoing discourse, it will contain (in the opinion of the speaker) information that the hearer is not expecting.

Example

Actually, there is a charge of $3 for an interim postal statement. Would you like one to be sent?

In this way, the design ensured that the listener would be prepared that the information following, although relevant, may not be what they were expecting.

OK

"OK" has a rather informal status in spoken English, but can have many uses in spoken dialogue systems, depending on the level of formality required for the service. Stenstrom assigns various functions to "OK" depending on its location within an utterance.

"OK" at the beginning of a turn expresses agreement, and can also indicate acknowledgement of the preceding utterance.

"OK" in second position following "yes" emphasizes the agreement expressed by "yes". However, that role depends on the intonation of the utterance. For example, " Yes, OK" (spoken with a sigh) potentially indicates reluctant agreement or consent. On the other hand, "Yes, OK" (spoken with stress on "OK") indicates impatience with the interlocutor.

"OK" within the turn finishes a topic, and "OK" at the end of a turn asks for confirmation. (Again depending on intonation).

Example

OK, just tell me if you want another service.

Here the "OK" serves as an acknowledgement of the user's request for help.

Focusing and linking

These expressions focus attention on what is going to be said, by announcing the subject in advance. Some of them also make a link with previous discourse, by referring back to what was said before.

with reference to

talking/speaking of/about

regarding

as regards

as far as … is concerned

as for

I, for one,…

For one thing,…

Balancing contrasting points

These expressions are used to balance two facts or ideas that contrast, but do not contradict each other.

on the other hand

while

whereas

To indicate time order

In the past, before, earlier, previously, formerly, yesterday, recently, not long ago, at present, presently, currently, now, by now, until, today, immediately, simultaneously, at the same time, during, all the while, in the future, tomorrow, henceforth, after, after a short time, after a while, soon, later, later on, following

To indicate how or when something occurs in time

Suddenly, all at once, instantly, immediately, quickly, directly, soon, as soon as, just then, when, sometimes, some of the time, in the meantime, occasionally, rarely, seldom, infrequently, temporarily, periodically, gradually, eventually, little by little, slowly, while, meanwhile, always, all of the time, without exception, at the same time, repeatedly, often, frequently, generally, usually, as long as, never, not at all

To indicate sequence

First, in the first place, at first, once, once upon a time, to begin with, at the beginning, starting with, initially, from this point, earlier, second, secondly, in the second place, next, the next time, the following week, then, after that, following that, subsequently, on the next occasion, so far, later on, third, in the third place, last, last of all, at last, at the end, in the end, final, finally, to finish, to conclude, in conclusion, consequently, to recapitulate

To repeat

All in all, altogether, in brief, in short, in fact, in particular, that is, in simpler terms, to put it differently, in other words, again, once more, again and again, over and over, to repeat, as stated, that is to say, to retell, to review, to rephrase, to paraphrase, to reconsider, to clarify, to explain, to outline, to summarize

To provide an example

For example, as an example, for instance, to quote an instance, in this case, to illustrate, to show, to demonstrate, to explain, suppose that, specifically, to be exact, in particular, such as, namely, for one thing, indeed, in other words, to put it in another way, thus

To concede

Of course, after all, no doubt, naturally, unfortunately, while it is true, although this may be true, although, to admit, to confess, to agree

To conclude or to summarize

To conclude, in conclusion, to close, last of all, finally, to end, to complete, to bring to an end, thus, hence, therefore, as a consequence of, as a result, in short, to sum up, to summarize, to recapitulate

To add a point

Also, too, as well as, besides, equally important, first of all, furthermore, in addition (to), moreover, likewise, above all, most of all, least of all, and, either…or, neither…nor, however, yet, but, nevertheless, still, to continue

To compare

As, as well as, like, in much the same way, resembling, parallel to, same as, identically, of little difference, equally, matching, also, exactly, similarly, similar to, in comparison, in relation to

To contrast

Though, although, and yet, but, despite, despite this fact, in spite of, even so, for all that, however, in contrast, by contrast, on one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, in one way, in another way, although this may be true, nevertheless, nonetheless, still, yet, to differ from, a striking difference, another distinction, otherwise, after all, instead, unlike, opposite, to oppose, in opposition to, versus, against

To emphasise or to intensify

Above all, after all, indeed, as a matter of fact, chiefly, especially, actually, more important(ly), most important of all, most of all, moreover, furthermore, significantly, the most significant, more and more, of major interest, the chief characteristic, the major point, the main problem (issue), the most necessary, extremely, to emphasize, to highlight, to stress, by all means, undoubtedly, without a doubt, certainly, to be sure, surely, absolutely, obviously, to culminate, in truth, the climax of, to add to that, without question, unquestionably, as a result

To generalize

On the whole, in general, as a rule, in most cases, broadly speaking, to some extent, mostly

Showing our attitude to what we are saying

Frankly, honestly, I think, I suppose, I reckon, I guess, I believe, I see, after all, no doubt, I’m afraid, actually, as a matter of fact, to tell the truth, unfortunately

Дата добавления: 2015-11-05