museums, art galleries, art

Museum, Art Gallery, Picture Gallery

227. museum

Museum is in most, but not all cases, an equivalent of музей, that is, a building in which objects illustrating history, science, culture are displayed. Thus in a museum we expect to find, for example, pottery, weapons, ornaments, furniture, costumes and documents illustrating the life of some past age or period. Specialized museums contain objects relating to a particular sphere of activity, for example, the theatre, musical instruments, railways. A museum may also contain works of art, such as paintings, drawings and sculpture but that is not generally its main purpose, at least in Britain. American usage differs in this respect, and the expressions art museum, museum of art are used in the USA of a building where works of art are shown.
An open-air museum, as its name implies, is not a building but a collection of exhibits, usually architectural, arranged outside. For example, a brochure about the city of Chichester contains the following description of its open-air museum

*Set in a gently sloping, partially wooded valley, this museum provides a unique opportunity o f seeinghow country people in southern England lived from medieval times onwards. The main purpose of the museum is to select buildings; threatened by decay or demolition and re-erect them on this35-acre site. An entire social history of the rural area is demonstrated by the exhibits brought together here."

Open-air museum corresponds to музей под открытым небом, заповедник, and can be used of such places as Khizhi.

e. g. The Khizhi Open-Air Museum
Reserve and reservation are rarely if ever used in this sense.

Museum is not appropriate in cases where the building itself is of prime importance, rather than what is displayed there, or where nothing is displayed. In the Soviet Union this applies particularly to churches and cathedrals such as St. Isaac’s Cathedral in Leningrad, and those in the Moscow Kremlin, which are no longer used for services, but are preserved as architectural monuments and open to the public. Such buildings should be called architectural monuments (open to the public), and we can say of them, for example:

The … Church/Cathedral/Palace is no longer used for services/lived in, but is preserved (by the state) as an architectural monument for people to visit.

Note that former palace is used only when followed by the name of the former owner.

e.g. the former palace of Count Grigori Potemkin

This is because palace refers to the type of building, irrespective of its present function.

Museum is not generally used of houses or flats where famous people lived, unless the objects displayed there are at least as important as the place itself. Simply house is used.

e.g. Dickens’ House in London

Flat rarely if ever occurs in such cases, because flats are not traditional in Britain, but it may be used to translate музей-квартира. Дом-музей and музей-квартира should there-fore be translated as house and flat.
e.g. Repin’s House

Pushkin’s House

Since the person is famous and the house or flat is open to public, it is clear that it is specially arranged to illustrate the person’s life. If the house or flat is the one where that person was born, birthplace can be used, as in the case of Shakespeare’s Birthplace in Stratford-on-Avon.

228. art gallery

An art gallery is a building or room where pictures are exhibited. This concept is a separate one from museum, as illustrated by such proper names as:

Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery

In cases where there is only an art gallery, not combined with a museum, simply gallery is used in the name.

e.g. The National Gallery

The Hayward Gallery

Gallery may also denote a room within an art gallery.

e.g. We had no time left for the last two galleries.

Room, however, is more common in this sense. (see unit 236).

229. picture gallery

This is sometimes used instead of art gallery in cases where only pictures are on show. In practice it generally denotes small galleries, often private. It rarely occurs in proper names. Here simply gallery is used, as in the case of art galleries.

Some London Museums and Art Galleries

230. Here are the names of the most well-known museums and art galleries in London, all public.

Museums

The British Museum

historical and archeological exhibits, graphics

The British Museum also has a reference library, called the British Museum Reading Room, which is not simply part of the Museum, but is the largest and most important reference library in Britain.

The Victoria and Albert Museum

fine and applied arts of all countries, periods and styles. Named after Queen Victoria and her husband Albert.

The Science Museum

exhibits illustrating the history of science (естествознание) and industry

The Natural History Museum

a museum relating to the botany and zoology

The New London Museum

a museum of the history of London (formed by the merger of the two museums, the Guildhall and the London Museum) housed in a large modern building near St. Paul’s Cathedral and opened in 1977.

Art Galleries

The National Gallery

European art of all schools

The National Portrait Gallery

portraits of notable people, from the Middle Ages to the present day

The Tate Gallery

British paintings of all periods, modern, foreign paintings, modern sculpture

The Hayward Gallery

A small gallery built in the 1960’s by the Greater London Council on the South bank of the Thames, next to the Royal Festival Hall (see unit 221), for special exhibitions (see unit 232)

The gallery of the Royal Academy, in Burlington House, near Piccadilly. This is used only for special exhibitions (see unit 232). The Royal Academy of Arts was founded in 1768 with Sir Joshua Reynolds as first president, “for the purpose of cultivating and improving the arts of painting, sculpture and architecture”.

Artists who are members of the Royal Academy may put the letters R.A. after their name.

e.g. Sir Joshua Reynolds, R.A.

Names of Soviet Museums and Galleries

231. When translating the names of Soviet музеи, it is probably best to use museum, in spite of the fact that such usage does not sound quite natural in cases where mainly works of art are exhibited.

Moscow

The Pushkin Fine Arts Museum/Museum of Fine Arts

The Tretyakov (Art) Gallery

The Central Lenin Museum

The Museum of the Revolution

The (History of) Moscow Museum

The Kremlin Armoury

Leningrad

The Hermitage (Museum)

The Russian Museum

The Kunstkammer (The Academy of Sciences' Anthropology and Ethnography Museum or Anthropological and Ethnographical Museum)

The Museum of the Revolution

The Museum of (the History of) Religion and Atheism, in Kazan Cathedral

The (History of) Leningrad Museum

The following are not museums, but architectural monuments (see unit 227):

the Kremlin cathedrals

St. Basil's Cathedral

Peter and Paul's Fortress

or: The Peter and Paul Fortress

St. Isaac's Cathedral

Peter the Great's Summer Palace/House

Exhibition, Exhibit, Show, Display

232. exhibition

This corresponds in general to выставка, выставочный and is used in the following expressions:

art exhibition

special exhibition временная выставка

Note that temporary exhibition is rare.

permanent exhibition постоянная выставка

This is less often used in practice than special exhibition since exhibitions are not usually permanent.

exhibition of...

e.g. an exhibition of English water-colours/works by Soviet artists/works from Soviet museums

(name of artist)

.............….exhibition

e.g. a. There's going to be a Turner exhibition next month.

b. When does the Turner exhibition open?

one-man exhibition персональная выставка

e.g. (Speaking of an artist) He had a one-man exhibition last year.

centenary/ bicentenary exhibition

These expressions are often used of exhibitions held to mark the hundredth/two-hundredth anniversary of an artist's birth.

e.g. a. (On a poster advertising an exhibition)

HENRI MATISSE: A Centenary Exhibition

b. In 1975 there was a bicentenary exhibition of the works of Turner.

These expressions can only be translated into Russian by: выставка, посвященная столетию/двухсотлетию со дня рождения художника.

Tercentenary (300th anniversary), quatercentenary (400th) and quincentenary (500th, sometimes quingentenary) also exist, although they are less often needed.

Anniversary is used in cases where there is not an exact number of hundreds.
e.g. a 50^th/60th/150th anniversary exhibition

traveling exhibition

e.g. They chose the name "Peredvizhniki" because they had decided to show their works to the country as a whole by means of travelling exhibitions.

exhibition hall

e.g. The Earls Court Exhibition Hall in London is used for such exhibitions as the Ideal Home Exhibition Motor Show, but not for art exhibitions.

The following verbs are used with exhibition from an organizational point of view: organize, arrange, hold, mount.

233. exhibit

As a verb tills corresponds to выставляться.

e.g. a. His work was exhibited at the Royal Academy.

b. He often exhibits in America.

As a noun it means экспонат in British English.

e.g. The Tutanhamun [_/tu:tan'ka:mən] exhibition consisted of fifty exhibits from the tomb of the young Pharaoh.

In American English, however, it is a synonym of exhibition.

e.g. We went to an interesting exhibit yesterday.

234. show

Show, as a verb or a noun, may be used instead of exhibit, exhibition in some cases, although it is less specific, since it can be applied not only to art (see units 101, 152).
e.g. a. His earlier works will be shown from January 15^th.

on show

b. The Royal Academy Summer Show

the name of an annual exhibition (see unit 230)

235. display

This word is not generally used in the sense of exhibit / exhibition, show, asillustrated above. In an art context it occurs mainly in such sentences as:

e.g. His work displays a wonderful feeling for nature.

Otherwise it is used particularly in connection with shops.

e.g. There was a beautiful display of china in the shop window.

and in such general sentences as:

He displayed great courage.

Going Round a Museum or Art Gallery

236. Go to/round is more common in conversation and informal writing than visit. As a noun, however, visit is more often used, probably since go to/round cannot be used substantivally.

e.g. A Visit to the Hermitage

a composition title

A person visiting a museum may be called a visitor although this word is avoided by many people in conversation.

There are two ways of going round a museum or gallery:
with a guide or: on one's own

with/in a group by oneself

on a guided/conducted tour

Here is a dialogue to illustrate the use of these expressions:

Two friends arrive at the Hermitage, leave their coats in the cloakroom, buy tickets and show them at the barrier.

- Shall we go on a conducted tour, or go round by ourselves?

- Oh, let’s go round on our own. Then we can stop and look at the things we want to see. I can't stand going round with a group.

- Yes, I know. But some of the guides are very interesting, and in any case we don't know our way round yet. We haven't got a guide book either. So why don't we join a group, and then if we get bored we can easily go off on our own.

- All right. I suppose it would be better to start off with a guide.

Remember that guide is also used in the sense of guide book.

e.g. Let’s go to the bookstall and see if they've got a guide (book).

Excursion should not be used in the sense of "guided tour”. However, it may be used of an organized visit to( not round) a museum or gallery.

e.g. There's an excursion to the Hermitage tomorrow.

We are going on an excursion to the Hermitage tomorrow.

School party is used of a group of schoolchildren visiting a museum (see also unit 320.)

e.g. There are a lot of school parties in the museums at this time of year.

Room, not hall, is the usual word for a room in amuseum where works of art are exhibited, even if it is a large one.

e.g. a. (speaking of an exhibition) — The first room contains mainly drawings and water-colours. The oils are in the next room.

b. There are several rooms on the first floor devoted to (the works of) the Impressionists.

Gallery is sometimes used in this sense, especially if the room is long and narrow, although gallery more often denotes a whole building. (See unit 228.)

Works of Art

237. Note that work of art is the usual expression corresponding to произведение искусства. Art work is occasionally used by artists, art critics, etc., but is not to be generally recommended. Piece of art is not used, although piece occurs in other expressions (see unit 250).

238. Works of art are usually classified as follows:

1. painting живопись

2. graphic art графика sometimes called the graphic arts or graphics.
However, although these are the proper terms, their use is confined mainly to professional circles. The general public tend to use more specific words, especially: drawings, prints, drawings and prints. (See units 252, 256.)

3. sculpture скульптура

4. applied art прикладное искусство

Here are some examples of usage:

e.g. a. I like painting(s)_, but I find drawings and prints rather difficult to appreciate. b. – I went to an exhibition of works by Moscow artists yesterday, at the Artists' Union.

- Oh yes? What are they showing? Just painting(s)?

- Well, it's mostly painting(s), but there are graphics and sculpture as well, and a room of applied art.

1. Painting

Since painting arouses the widest interest, it will be treated in some detail.

239. painting, picture, canvas

Painting can be used in two ways:

1.as an uncountable noun, corresponding живопись,
e.g. I tike painting.

2. as a countable noun, meaning a picture in paint,

e.g. There are many paintings by Repin in the Russian Museum.

A painting may be in oil or water-colour (see unit 248).This second sense has no exact Russian equivalent, and usually has to be translated as картина, that is, in the same way as picture.

Picture is more general than painting, since it includes not only works in paint (oil paintings and water-colours), but also drawings, prints, etc. (See units 251—256.)

Canvas is sometimes used of a picture painted on canvas (полотно), mainly by artists, art critics, etc.

e.g. These canvases painted direct from nature were never finished, as Turner did not intend them for exhibition.

240. Use of the prepositions of and by with picture/painting

Note that picture/painting of followed by a proper name refers to the subject of the picture, not the artist.
Thus, for example:

a picture/ painting of Monet

means one depicting Monet, that is, a portrait. When giving the name of the artist by should be used:
a picture/ painting by Monet
The same applies to portrait, drawing, sketch, etc.

241. Artist’s name denoting a work

The name of an artist can be used like a common noun to denote a work by him. Thus a Picasso means a work by Picasso. Other examples are:

a. It looks like a Gauguin.

b. There is an early Van Gogh in the exhibition.

c. How did you like the Goya?

d. The Hermitage has the largest collection of Rembrandts.

GENRES IN PAINTING

242. landscape painting пейзаж

Landscape painting may be countable or uncountable.

e.g. a. Landscape painting became very popular in the 17^th century.

b. Gods and goddesses rarely appear in a Dutch landscape painting.

Landscape is widely used in the sense of a landscape painting.

e.g. a. There was a beautiful landscape by Levitan.

b. The Hermitage has a fine collection of Dutch landscapes.

Landscape painter denotes an artist who specializes in landscape painting.

e.g. Constable is perhaps the greatest English landscape painter.

Note that in the context of art, landscape generallydenotes a picture, and not the view depicted there. In thelatter sense scenery is the usual word.

e.g. a. From about 1807 Turner began to exhibit more landscapes of English scenery.

b. The scenery of the Alps inspired him to paint several beautiful pictures.

Countryside is sometimes used in a similar way.

e.g. Turner painted many pictures of the countryside neatPetworth, where he often stayed at the house of his patron, Lord Egremont.

For the distinction between countryside and scenery, seeunit 327.

Nature is used with reference to landscape painters in such sentences as:

e.g. a. Constable loved nature/had a great love of/for nature.

b. Shishkin had a wonderful feeling for nature.

Note, however, that nature is used only in a general sense and is not qualified attributively by such adjectives as English, Russian, northern, etc. In translating such expressions as русская природа, countryside is more appropriate (see above and unit 327).

243. seascape (painting) морской пейзаж

Although seascape painting is possible, at least in uncountable use, simply seascape is generally preferred.

e.g. a. The seascape/Seascape painting is naturally popular with such sea-faring nations as the English and the Dutch.

b. This is one of Turner's early seascapes.

Marine painter is used to denote a painter of seascapes.

e.g. Turner is considered by many people to be the greatest marine painter.

Marinist does not exist.

244. portrait painting портретная живопись

Portraitpainting is only uncountable.

e.g. Russian Portrait Painting in the 19th Century

title of exhibition or book

Portrait is used when a countable noun is needed.

e.g. Portrait of a Young Man

title of a picture

There are several fine portraits by Degas in the exhibition.

Self-portrait corresponds to автопортрет.

Portraitpainter or portraitist is used to denote an artist who specializes in portrait painting.

e.g. Degas was a superb portrait painter/portraitist.

Other expressions connected with portrait painting are:

to paint a portrait of smb/smb's portrait

e.g. a. He painted several portraits of his wife.

b. He painted his wife's portrait (several times).

Note that the verb portray is not generally used in the specific sense of "paint a portrait of", because its application is more general. (See unit 269.)

sitter, subject, model

Sitter is the most usual word for a person who is having his portrait painted, or sitting for his portrait.

e.g. Degas has captured the inner life of his sitter.

Subject is sometimes used instead of sitter, particularly in cases where the person did not sit for his portrait, but was simply observed by the artist. It clearly has a wider application than sitter (see unit 259).

Model is used mainly of nudes.

full-length portrait

half/knee/shoulder-length portrait

equestrian portrait

one where the subject is on a horse

245. still-life (painting) натюрморт

Still-life, without painting, is generally used, both as a countable and uncountable noun.

e.g. a. The still-life was very popular with the Cubists.

b. There was a beautiful still-life of a vase and some fruit against/on a blue background.

c. There were three still-lives by Picasso.

Still-life is used adjectivally in:

still-life painter

still-life composition/arrangement

246. genre painting жанровая живопись

This can be defined as painting that represents scenes from daily life in a more or less realistic way. Genre painting is used mainly by artists, art critics, art historians. The general public tends to prefer some more specific expression, for example, with scene (see unit 249 below).

genre painter

a painter of genre scenes

247. mural, fresco

Mural is used of any painting on a wall (стенная живопись).

e.g. She has done several murals for public buildings.

Fresco denotes a picture or design painted on a wall or ceiling while the plaster is still wet, or at least damp (фреска, фресковая живопись).

The following words are often used in connection with painting:

248. oil, water-colour масло, акварель

A painter may use oil paint(s) or water-colour(s). These expressions are used in such sentences as;

e.g. a. Turner used water-colour for immediate studies from nature, and oil for those pictures which he intended to exhibit.

b. Winslow Homer is famous for his landscapes in oils, and even better in water-colours.

Oil painting, water-colour painting are used as countable nouns to mean a picture painted in oils/water-colours. Here the word painting may be omitted; this is often done in the case of oil paintings and nearly always in the case of water-colours.

e.g. I liked the oil paintings / oils, but I was even more impressed by the water-colours.

249. scene

The word is used in various expressions specifying the subject of a picture, for example:

hunting scene

historical scene
battle scene

street scene

city scene

country scene

Scene is often followed by from... life.
e.g. He painted scenes from everyday/village/court life.

life in Tahiti.

250. piece

This is used as a general term meaning "work", "picture”, sometimes alone.

e.g. The exhibition contains several fine pieces by Corot.

but more often in combinations such as:

conversation piece жанровая сцена

a picture depicting a group of people in their customary indoor or outdoor surroundings

flower piece

a type of still-life representing a carefully arranged vase of flowers realistically painted in minute detail

masterpiece шедевр

piece mayrefer also to graphics.

2. Graphic Art

251. Graphic art includes:

drawing рисунок

engraving гравюра

etching офорт

lithography литография

and some other less widely practised types.

Graphic artist is used as a general term for an artist who draws, engraves, etc. It is used in contrast to painter.

e.g. Rembrandt was great not only as a painter but as a graphic artist.

The verbs draw, engrave, etch, etc. are used with reference to the graphic arts, depending on the genre.

Do often occurs as a general word in cases where the more specific verbs listed above are unsuitable for some reason.

e.g. a. He did many beautiful drawings of St. Petersburg.

b. This engraving was done in 1822.

252. drawing

Drawing is used as an uncountable noun (рисование) as a countable noun (рисунок).

e.g. a. For Rembrandt drawing was a means of recording his impressions of the outside world.

b. There are some beautiful drawings by Van Gogh (in the exhibition).

There are various types of drawing:

pencil drawings

pen (and ink) drawings

brush drawings

pastels

drawings with special artists' crayons

A sketch is also usually a drawing. In the case of professional artists, sketches are generally made as a preliminary stage for a painting (набросок). However, sketch, sketching are widely used of amateurs instead of draw, drawing. Some people go sketching, for example, in the country, simply for recreation, without any intention of using their sketches for a painting. Sketch books are sold for sketching.

Draughtsman may be used of an artist who draws (рисовальщик), although this word more often means чертежник. In an art context it is generally modified, and refers to technical skill in drawing.

e.g. He's a fine draughtsman.

If draughtsman is not modified, as in He's a draughtsman it has the meaning чертежник.

Since most artists not only draw, but also do engravings, etc., the general term graphic artist may be used instead.

253. engraving

Engraving may be used as a countable or uncountable noun.

e.g. a. Engraving is a laborious art.

b. There were some exquisite engravings of 19th-century St. Petersburg.

An engraver is an artist who engraves, or does engravings.

254. etching

Etching is also used countably and uncountably.

e.g. a. Etching is quicker and easier than engraving, and the resulting print is very similar.

b. During the period of the Napoleonic invasion of Spain Goya did a series of etchings called "Disasters of War".

An etcher is an artist who does etchings.

255. lithography, lithograph

Lithography is uncountable, lithograph countable.

e.g. a. Lithography is the simplest and most direct of all the graphic arts.

b. The simplest method of making a lithograph is to draw on stone with chalk or pencil.

A lithographer is an artist who does lithographs.

256. print эстамп

A printis the printed impression made when the plate or block on which the engraving, etching or lithograph has been done is covered with ink and pressed down onto a sheet of paper.

Print is often used as a collective term for pictures printed in ink from engravings, etchings or lithographs.

3. Sculpture

257. There are only a limited number of words andexpressions connected with sculpture in general use, and on the whole they present no problems of usage for Russian speakers.

Sculpture may be used uncountably in a general sense,

e.g. a. I prefer sculpture to painting.

b. There's an exhibition of modern sculpture at the Hermitage.

or countably, to mean a particular work, a piece of sculpture.

e.g. a. There's a new sculpture in the entrance hall of the university.

b. The museum has bought several sculptures by local artists.

Sculpture is occasionally used as a verb, but in most cases some more specific word such as carve or cast preferred.

Sculpt (vb) exists, but is not common.

Sculptor means an artist specializing in sculpture.

The traditional forms of sculpture are the statue, the bust, and the head. These may be carved in stone, marble, ivory or wood, cast in metal, for example, in bronze, modelled in clay. Out of may be used instead of in with carve.

e.g. He carved the statue in marble/out of marble.

A statue of a person on a horse is called an equestrian statue.

Figure is often used in connection with sculpture, especially in the names of works not representing a particular individual.

e.g. standing/seated/reclining figure

figure of a man/boy/woman

If there are several figures together, they may be called a (sculptural) group.

Monumental sculpture is used of sculpture on a large scale.

Site is used in connection with sculpture out of doors.

e.g. The site (of the sculpture) is well-chosen/ideal.

4. Applied Art

258.

The most widely-known forms of applied art are:

weaving and textile design embroidery

pottery glass

jewellery

Discussing Pictures

When talking or writing about pictures, the following points are often discussed: subject, theme brushwork

light and shade form, shape

technique composition

style colour

line(work)

These aspects will now be considered in turn.

Subject, Theme

259. subject сюжет

This means what is depicted.

e.g. Degas looked round for new subjects and found them in the opera-house.

It is used in such combinations as:

historical subjects mythological subjects

Biblical subjects classical subjects (See unit 48.)

260. theme

Theme is not a synonym of subject, although their use overlaps in some cases. The difference between them has already been discussed under READING (unit 52). In connection with a painting, theme may be used in such sentences as:

e.g. The theme of the painting is the futility of war.

Form, Shape

261. Form may be used uncountably in a general sense, to mean the manner in which the subject is depicted. In art, however, it is more often used specifically in contrast to colour(ing).

e.g. a. His still-lifes show a strong sense of form, but the colouring lacks subtlety.

b. The Impressionists tended to attribute greater importance to colour than to form. In such sentences form means the shapes created by the artist, and may include the way in which they are arranged, although the latter idea is often expressed separately by the word composition. (See unit 262 below.)

Note the difference between this use of form in art with its use in literature, where form is contrasted with subject, theme.

As a countable noun, form is sometimes used as a synonym of shape, mainly by artists, art critics, etc.

e.g. a. The form of the vase is very unusual.

b. The picture is an arrangement of (geometrical) forms: circles, squares, rectangles.

In this sense, however, shape is more common, at least with the general public.

Composition

262. Composition means how the various elements of the picture are arranged (композиция).

e.g. The composition of the picture is very striking.

When talking about the composition of a picture, we need the following expressions:

in the foreground/background

in the centre foreground/background

in the left foreground/background

in the right foreground/background

in the centre/middle (of the picture)

off centre

e.g. The tree is deliberately off centre.

on/to the right/left (of the picture)

at the top/bottom

in the top/bottom left/right-hand corner

Composition may also be used countably to mean a picture, considered from the point of view of its composition.

e.g. It is a large composition of the estuary of the Thames.

Colour

263. colour, colouring, colourist

Colour is used uncountably in such sentences as:

a. He has a wonderful sense of colour.

b. He uses colour very effectively.

c. The Impressionists produced canvases where lightness and intensity of colour expressed perfectly the luminosity and brilliance of nature bathed in sunlight.

As a countable noun it denotes a particular colour.

a. Green was a colour that Turner particularly disliked.

b. The bright colours of the peasants' costumes stand out against the dark background.

c. The painter uses cool colours — bluish-greens, blues and violets - for the shadows, and warm colours, that is, those where yellows predominate, for the fully-lit areas.

The following adjectives are often applied to colours:

light - dark luminous

bright - pale strong

vivid harsh - soft, pastel,

subdued, delicate

intense warm - cool

Primary colours are red, blue and yellow, from which all other colours can be obtained by mixing.

Colouring is used to denote the way in which an artist uses colours.

e.g. The delicate colouring of this picture is typical of his later works.

Note that later, not late, is used in contrast to early in such cases. This applies also to the other arts, for example, music, literature.

Colourist occurs in such sentences as:

e.g. Turner is a superb colourist.

It is generally modified, as in the above sentence, by good, fine, superb, poor, or some other word.

264. shade, tint, tinge, tone, hue

These words are often used when discussing an artist's use of colour and the distinctions between them are not always easy to grasp.

Shade as a countable noun refers to degree or intensity of colour (оттенок).

e.g. The picture is painted entirely in varying shades of blue, ranging from the very pale blue, almost white, of the sky, to the dark blue, almost black, of the ship.

For the uncountable use of shade, and its verbal use, see unit 265 below.

Tint may be a synonym of shade. For example, the SOED gives the phrase autumn tints of brown and gold. However, it is used especially with reference to pale and delicate shades, and this use is given separately in the SOED as a technical term of painting:

a grade of colour, spec. a mixture of a colour with white

The following sentence illustrates the more specialized use:

e.g. Renoir excelled at flesh tints.

Tint is also used as a verb, meaning "to give a tint to, to colour, especially with a pale and delicate shade".

A tinge is a slight shade of colour, especially one modiffying the basic colour.

e.g. The sky is grey with a tinge of pink.

Tinge is also a verb.

e.g. The sky is tinged with pink.

Tone may also be used in the sense of shade. For example, Hornby gives the phrase a picture in warm tones, explaining it as "in shades suggesting warmth".

However, it also has a slightly different sense, defined in the SOED as follows:

"The prevailing effect of the combination of light and shade (see unit 265 below) and of the general scheme of colouring, in a painting, building, etc."

This sense can be illustrated as follows:

Turner and the Romantic painters were sometimes called the white painters by followers of the classical tradition because of the light tones of their pictures. These contrasted strongly with the traditional dark tones of the classical school.

Hue is used occasionally to mean a colour or shade of colour, mainly in poetic language, although sometimes simply for stylistic variety in formal situations.

Light and Shade

265. These two words are often used together to denote the lighter and darker parts of a picture, that is, those parts which are represented as illuminated, and those represented as lacking illumination.

e.g. The light and shade in the folds of the woman's dress is skilfully rendered.

There are some beautiful effects of light and shade.

light and shade effects.

Note that shade, not shadow, is used here. The usage of these words coincides in some cases, but the general tendency is as follows:

Shade is most often used uncountably to denote an area of relative darkness, whereas shadow is most often used to denote a dark shape thrown on the ground, floor, a wall, etc. by, for example, a person, a tree, a building.

Shade is also used as a verb, meaning to darken with parallel lines, etc. (parts of a drawing, etc.) to give the appearance of light and shade (SOED).

e.g. The folds of the dress are shaded (in pencil).

This process, or the result of it, is called shading.

e.g. This drawing is remarkable for the skilful use of shading.

Line(work)

266. Apart from its ordinary, countable use, as in to draw a line, line is also used uncountably in the generalized sense of “lines, use of lines, drawing", although with reference to a painting as well as graphics.

e.g. a. He has a good sense of line.

b. This picture is remarkable for its purity of line.

Lineworkis also used.

e.g. The linework is brilliant.

Brushwork

267. This means how the paint is applied (живописная манера, манера письма).

e.g. The brushwork of the Impressionists differed from that of their predecessors in that they did not blend the colours together imperceptibly, but left the brush strokes clearly visible all over their canvases.

268. Style and technique present no particular problems of usage for Russian speakers.

Some General Words

The following words are widely used when discussing pictures.

269. depict, portray, represent

Depict and portray are widely used in the sense of "represent, show in the form of a picture". They are more or less interchangeable, and may often alternate for stylistic variety. Here are some examples of usage:

a. The drawing depicts a sleeping child.

b. Scenes from the Greek myths are depicted in the frescoes.

c. The series of etchings "Disasters of War" (by Goya) portrays the heroism and sufferings of the people during the Napoleonic invasion of Spain.

d. Death is portrayed as an old woman.

e. The famous writer is portrayed sitting at his desk.

Represent also occurs in some such cases, but is comparatively rare.

270. render, catch, capture

Render is used in the sense of "reproduce by artistic means," generally with an adverbial modifier.

e.g. a. The painter has rendered the child's wonder very well.

b. Degas effectively renders the atmosphere of the ballet.

c. The Impressionists wanted to render as truthfully as possible effects of sunlight.

<== предыдущая лекция	\|	следующая лекция ==>
Museums and Art Galleries	\|	London has a large number of museums and galleries. It’s the centre for the world’s art trade with many galleries houses. London has over 300 museums. I would like to tell you about some of them.