ETYMOLOGY
a) types of borrowings
b) criteria
c) borrowings
The term etymology is composed of two quick morphemes etyma - true meaning + logos - learning. It's the branch of linguistics concerned with finings out the origin of the word its (not clear) form, its primary.
The most characteristic feature of English is its mixed character. Many English consider foreign influence especially that of French to be the most important factor in the history of English.
It's true that English vocabulary, which is one of the extreme amongst the world's languages, contains an immense number of words of foreign origin.
The original stock of English vocabulary consists of 3 groups:
1) Anglo-European element.
2) Germanic element and English proper element (not earlier that 5th century A.D.).
The words of those groups appeared in the English vocabulary in the 5th century or earlier that's after Germanic tribes migrated to the British Isles. As to the Anglo-European and Germanic groups they are so old that they cannot be dated. The tribal languages of the Angles, the Saxons, the Judes by the time of their migration to the British Isles contained only words of Indo-European and Germanic roots plus a certain members of the earliest Latin borrowings.
By the Indo-European element are mental words of roots common to all or most languages of the Indo-European groups English words of their groups denote elementary notions without which no human communication would be possible. The following groups can be identified:
1. Family relation: father, mother, brother, son, daughter.
2. Parts of the human body: tooth, (not clear), nose, lip, heart.
3. Animals: cow, marine, goose.
4. Plants: tree, birch, corn.
5. Times of day: night.
6. Heavenly bodies: sun, moon, star.
7. Numerous adjectives: red, new, glad, sad.
8. Pronoun - personal (except they which is Scandinavian borrowings) demonstrative.
9. Numerals from one to a hundred.
10. Numerous verbs: sit, eat, know.
11. The elemental elements lip, heart words of roots common to all of most lip, heart languages. Some of the main groups of elemental words are the same as in the Indo-European element:
1. Parts of human body: head, hand, arm, bone.
2. Animals: bear, fox, lip, heart
3. Plants: oak, fir grass.
4. Natural phenomenon: rain, frost.
5. Seasons of year: winter, spring, summer
6. Landscape features: sea, land.
7. Human: dwellings and furniture, house, room, lip, heart
8. Sea-going vessels: float, ship.
9. Adjectives: green, blue, grey, white, s small, high, old, good.
10. Verbs: see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink.
In the 5th century when the precipitation tribes migrated across the sea human as the English precipitation to the British Isles they were confronted by the Celts, the original inhabitants of the Isles of course we precipitation find some traces of Celtic origin in English language especially numerous among them place names, names of the rivers, hills, precipitation of precipitation hills.
The 7th century A.D. was precipitation for the precipitation of English. Latin was the official language of the Christian Church this period is accompanied by new Latin borrowings the borrowed words indicated persons, objects, ideas associated with church. Besides that educational terms were Latin borrowings.
From the end of the 8th to the middle of the 11th century English underwent several Scandinavian invasions, which left their trace on English vocabulary. In 1066 with the famous battle of Hastings when the English were defeated by the Norman under William the Conqueror we come to the epoch of Norman Conquest. French words from the Norman dialect penetrated every aspect.
The Renaissance period as in European countries is marked by significant developments in science, art, culture. The borrowed elements same from Celtic 5th century Latin, Scandinavian French, Greek, Italian, Spanish, German, Indian, Russian an and some other languages - virtue (not clear)
The etymological structure of English vocabulary
The native element
I. Anglo-European element. II. Germanic element. III. English Proper elements (not earlier than 5th century A.D.
III. English Proper element (not earlier than 5th century A.D.) | The borrowed element
I. Celtic (5-6th century A.D.) II. Latin: 1st group 1st century B.C. 2nd group 7th century A.D. 3rd group the Renaissance period. III. Scandinavian (8th - 11th century A.D.) IV. French. Norman borrowings: 11th 13th century A.D. Parisian borrowings (Renaissance) V. Greek (Renaissance) VI. Italian VII. Spanish VIII. German IX. Indian X. Russian And some other groups.
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Modern scholars estimate the percentage of borrowed words in the English vocabulary at 65.70% which is an exceptionally high figure. This anomaly is explained by the country's eventfully history and by its many international contacts
2. The most characteristic features of native words are:
1) Semantic characteristic words of Anglo-Saxon origin belong to every important sphere of communication, they are highly polysemantic.
2) The 2nd characteristic feature of native words is their frequency value, since then words denote everyday phenomenon and they all are of the English language word stock they are most frequent words they constitute 80% of the first 500 most frequent words.
3) Structurally the native words are simple. They have 1 or 2 syllables their phonemic shape is also simple. They are stable.
4) Most native words possess a wide range of lexical and grammatical valence. Arnold gives an example with the word watch it is enters a number of set exemplas to be on watch, to keep watch, a watched pot never boils.
5) Stylistically native words are of neutral character.
6) Word building ability is great. They possesses large word clusters of derived the compound words new words have been formed from roots mainly by mean of affixation, composition, convention.
Such suffixes of native origin as: -er, -ness, -ish, -ed, -un, -mis have been used to build numerous new words throughout the whole history of English.
The term house of borrowing should be applied to the language from which this or that particular word was taken into the English language. The term origin of the borrowed, words should be applied to the language the word may be traced to.
Thus the French borrowing "table" is Latin by origin. (L. tabula) the Latin borrowing school came into Latin from the Greek language school.
The number and character of the borrowed words tell us of the relations between the peoples, the level of their culture etc.
Borrowings enter the language in two ways: In two ways oral speech and written speech.
Oral borrowing took place is the early periods of history while as in recent times written borrowings gained importance words borrowed orally Latin inch, mil, strit are usuallt short and undergo more changes in the act of adoption written borrowing Fr. Written borrows communication belles-lettres preserve their spelling they are often rather and their assimilation in a long process.
by the analogy plural sending have assumed the same inflection instead of their original sputniks.
2) Changes that are characteristic of both borrowed and native words. These changes are due to the development of the word according to the lows of the given language be can identify 3 types of animation phonetic grammatical and lexical assimilation of borrowings.
1) Phonetic assimilation comprises changes in found-form, stress.
Familiar sounds or sound combinations the position of which was strange to the English language were replaced by other sounds of sound combination to make the words conform to the norms of the language German spits [spits] was turned into English [spits]. substitution of native sound for foreign ones usually takes place in the very of borrowing.
In some words that were borrowed especially from French and Latin. The accent was gradually shafted to the 1st syllable like a words humor,... on the same principal as the native words mother, father.
Grammatical assimilation.
Usually borrowed word after being introduced into English lost their forms grammatical categories and inflexion and acquired new grammatical categories and paradigms by analogy with other English was as in season, season’s, seasons’. However there are some words in Modern English that for centuries retained their foreign inflexion.
Phenomenon-phenomena
Grammatical parentheses-analyses
Grammatical virtuous-virtuoso.
Lexical assimilation.
When word is taken over into another language, its semantic structure as a rule undergoes great changes.
Polysemantic words are usually adopted only in one or two of their meanings. The word cargo and cask highly polysemantic in Spanish were adopted in one of their meanings “the goods carried in a ship, a barrel for holding liquids”
On the process of its historical development a borrowing sometimes acquired new meanings that were not to be found in its former semantic structure.
Move-in Modern English has developed of propose change one’s flat mix with people and others that the French movoir does not possess. As a rule the development of new meanings takes place 50-100 years after the word is borrowed.
Umbrella-from of ombrella- ombra- sun cam to denote similar protection from the rain as well.
Usually the primary meaning of a borrowed word is retained throughout its history but sometimes it becomes a secondary meaning.
Sound invasion wing, root, take and many others have retained their primary meaning to the present day, but OE feolase Modern English fellow was borrowed in the meaning of comrade companion the primary meaning has receded to the background and was replaced by the meaning that appeared in Modern English only a man or a boy.
Sometimes change of meaning or the result of associating borrowed words with familiar words which somewhat resemble them in sound but which are not at all related this phenomena is termed balk-etymology. Folk etimologization is a slow process people first attempt to give foreign borrowing is foreign pronunciation, but gradually popular use evolves a new pronunciation and spelling.
Another phenomenon which deserves special attention in the formation and derivatives from borrowed words. New derivatives are formed with the help of productive affixes often of Anglo-Saxon origin.
Nobly, faintness, sputnic-presputnic.
The degree of assimilation depends on the time of borrowing, the extent to which the word is used in the language on the way of borrowing words borrowed orally are assimilated more readily, then undergo greater changes whereas with words adopted thought writing the process of assimilation is longer and more laborious.
Replenishment of Modern English vocabulary.
No vocabulary of any living language is ever stable but is instantly changing, growing and decaying. The changes occurring in the vocabulary are due to linguistic the non- linguistic causes, but in most cases to the combination of both.
The vocabulary of present – day English is enriched mainly as a result of:
Structurally new vocabulary items represent two items represent two types of lexical units. Word blackout, microfilm-reader.
Word groups phrases units: blood – bank.
Script-show, serial, program on radio and TV. Lass – leader – popular article cold for less than its regular price. Words in their turn comprise various structural types:
a) root – words jeep a small light motor vehicle esp. for military, zebra – street classing place.
b) Derived words: collaborationist one who is in occupied territory words helpfully with the enemy.
c) Compounds: cutback – a reduction a decrease.
New vocabulary units are as rule monosemantic and most of them are marked by peculiar stylistic value.
Ways and nouns of enriching the vocabulary. New vocabulary units do not present genuine creations but are based as a rule on elements already available in the language. The vocabulary of present day English is enriched mainly as a result of:
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