1. Where the spelling is o,the pronunciation differs according to whether the vowel is

O o

	O

Spelling – to sound

1. Where the spelling is o, the pronunciation differs according to whether the vowel is

· Short or long

· Followed or not by r

· Strong or weak

2. The ‘strong’ pronunciation is regularly

ɒ || α:, as in lot lɒt || lɑːt (‘short O’)

əʊ || oʊ, as in nose nəʊz || noʊz (‘long O’)

3. Less frequently, it is

ʌ, as a come kʌm (especially before m, n, v, th)

uː, as in move muːv,

ʊ, as in woman 'wʊmən (note also I in women)

ɒ || ɔː, as in cross kr ɒs || kr ɔːs (dut some speakers of AmE use α: instead, thus krα:s)

Note also the exceptional gone gɒn || gɔːn.

4.Where the spelling is or, the ‘strong’ pronunciation is

ɔ:, as in north nɔ:θ || nɔːrθ,

or indeed, especially in BrE, the regular 'short' pronunciation

ɒ || ɑː, as in moral 'mɒrəl (AmE 'mɔ:rəl, 'mα:rəl)

5. Less frequently, it is

ɜ: || ɝː, as in work wɜːk || wɝːk (especially after w) or

ʌ || ɝː, as in worry 'wʌri || 'w ɝːi.

6. The ‘weak’ pronunciation is

ə, as in method 'meθəd, Oxford 'ɒksfəd || ' α:ksfərd.

In unstressed syllables there are often two possibilities, ə or əʊ || oʊ, the second being associated with careful speech or unfamiliar words, thus

Phonetics fəʊ'netiks || foʊ'netiks as a little-used word, but fə'netiks as an everyday word.

7. o also forms part of the digraphs oa, oe, oi, oo, ou, ow, oy.

	oa

Spelling – to sound

1. Where the spelling is the digraph oa, the pronunciation is regularly

əʊ || oʊ, as in road rəʊd || roʊd, or

ɔ:, as in board bɔːd ||| bɔːrd (before r).

2. Note the exceptional words broad br ɔ:d (and derivatives abroad, broaden),

c upboard 'k ʌbəd || 'k ʌbərd.

4. oa is not a diagraph in oasis, Noah, coalescence, protozoa.

	oe

Spelling – to sound

1. Where the spelling is diagraph oe, the pronunciation is regularly

əʊ || oʊ, as in toe təʊ || toʊ.

2. Exceptionally, it is

uː in shoe ʃuː, canoe,

ʌ in does (from do) dʌz,

iː in phoenix 'fi:nɪks and other words of Greek origin.

3. oe is not a diagraph in poem, poetic, coerce, Noel.

	oi, oy

Spelling – to sound

1. Where the spelling is one of the diagraphs oi and oy, the pronunciation is regularly

ɔɪ, as in noise nɔɪz, boy bɔɪ.

2. In words of French origin, the pronunciation is often

wα:, as in patois 'pætwαː.

3. Occasionally oi is weak, as in the usual pronunciation of tortoise 'tɔ: təs || 'tɔ:rtəs.

4. Note the exceptional words choir 'kwaiə || 'kwaiər, buoy bɔɪ (AmE also 'buːi).

5. oi is not a diagraph in coincidence, soloist.

	oo

Spelling – to sound

1. Where the spelling is the diagraph oo, the pronunciation is regularly either

u: as in food f uːd, or

ʊ, as in good gʊd.

There is no rule, although ʊ is commoner before k (book bʊk). In some words both pronunciations are use, as room.

2. Less frequently, the pronunciation is

ʌ, as in blood blʌd, flood.

3. Where the spelling is oor, the pronunciation is

ɔː, as in door dɔː || dɔːr, or

ʊə || ʊ as in moor mʊə || mʊr (but BrE now often mɔː).

4. Note the exceptional word brooch brəʊtʃ || broʊtʃ (AmE also bru:tʃ).

5. oo is not a diagraph in zoology, cooperate.

	ou, ow

Spelling – to sound

1. Where the spelling is one of the diagraph ou and ow, the pronunciation is regularly

aʊ, as in round raʊnd, cow kaʊ.

2. Less frequently, it is

əʊ || oʊ, as in soul səʊl || soʊl, own əʊn || oʊn,

ʌ, as in touch tʌtʃ, or

uː, as in group gruːp.

3. Note also the exceptional could kʊd, should, would.

4. Where the spelling is the notorious ough, the pronunciation may be any of the following:

ɔː, as in thought θɔːt,

uː, as in through θru:,

aʊ, as in bough baʊ,

əʊ || oʊ, as in though ðəʊ || ðoʊ,

ʌf, as in rough rʌf,

ɒf || ɔːf, as in cough kɒf || kɔːf,

ə || oʊ, as in thorough 'θʌrə || 'θɝːoʊ;

there are also other possibilities in lough, hiccough (more usually written loch, hiccup).

5. Where the spelling is our, the pronunciation may be

aʊ ə as in flour 'flaʊ ə || 'flaʊər,

ɔː,as in four fɔː || f ɔːr,

ɜ: || ɝ:, as in journey 'dʒɜːni || 'dʒɝːni,

ʌ || ɝ:, as in courage 'kʌrɪdʒ || 'k ɝː: ɪdʒ, or

ʊə || ʊ, as in tourist 'tʊərɪst ||'tʊrəst (BrE also ɔː); also

ʊ in the exceptional courier, usually 'kʊri ə || 'kʊriər.

P p

	p

Spelling – to sound

1. Where the spelling is p, the pronunciation is regularly p, as in pipe paɪp,

p also forms part of the diagraph ph.

2. Wherethe spelling is double pp, the pronunciation is regularly p, as in happy 'hæ pi.

3. p is normally silent at the beginning of a word before n, s, t, as in pneumonia, psychiatrist, ptomaine.

ph

Spelling – to sound

1. Where the spelling is the diagraph ph, the pronunciation is regularly f, as in photograph 'fəʊtəgrα:f || 'foʊtəgræf.

2. Exceptionally, it is

p, as in shepherd 'ʃepəd ||'ʃepərd, Clapham 'klæpəm (in these words the h was originally part of a suffix, and hence silent);

v, as in Stephen 'stiːvən and the older pronunciation of nephew 'nevjuː (now usually 'nef-).

	Phoneme and allophone

1. A phoneme is one of the basic distinctive units in the phonetics of a language. The actual speech sounds which represent it are its allophones. Phonemes have the power of distinguishing words in the language (e.g. p and b, as in pit pɪt and bit bɪt); allophones, as such, do not (e.g. clear and dark varieties of l).

2. Each language has its own phonemic system and its own rules for determining the allophones appropriate to the phonemes in various phonetic environments. In English, for example, the phoneme p comprises both aspirated and unaspirated allophones (see ASPIRATION). In some other languages, e.g. Hindi, aspirated and unaspirated plosives represent distinct phonemes. English ʃ varies according to its surroundings (see COARTICULATION). The phoneme i: comprises both clipped and unclipped allophones (see CLIPPING).

3. The allophones of a phoneme are phonetically similar to one another. More importantly, their distribution is either complementary (=predictable by rule from the context) or else random (=in the free variation). When it is important to distinguish phonemic transcription from allophonic or impressionistic transcription, it is usual to enclose the former in slants //, the latter in square brackets [ ].

· The symbols I, u are employed to reflect the NEUTRALIZATION of /i: = ɪ/ and /u: - ʊ/ in certain positions.

· For AmE, the allophone [t] of /t/ is symbolized explicitly.

· For BrE, the optional allophones [aʊ] of / əʊ/ is zymbolized expliicity.

· For some speakers (not of RP), ʌ and ə are not in contrast.

· Italic and raised symbols show the possibility of omission or insertion of a sound.

· The marks ̬, ◂, §̬, ◬ are added.

Qq

	q

Spelling – to sound

1. Except in occasional words from foreign languages, the letter q is always followed by u. Where the spelling is the resultant diagraph qu, the pronunciation is regularly

kw, as in quite kwaɪt, or

k, asin picturesque pɪktʃə'resk.

2. The pronunciation is generally kw. Examples: queen kwiːn, squeak skwiːk, equal 'iːkwəl, liquid 'lɪkwɪd.

3. However, in the case of que at the end of a word, and in a minority of other words, the pronunciation is k. Examples: clique kliːk, cheque tʃek (AmE spelling: check); queue kjuː, liquor 'lɪkə || 'lɪkər.

4. Where the spelling is cqu, the pronunciation is again either kw, as in acquaint ə 'kweɪnt, or k, as in lacquer 'lækə || 'læk ər.

Rr

	r

Spelling – to sound

1. Where the spelling is r, the pronunciationis regularly r, as in run rʌn.

2. Where the spelling is double rr, the pronunciation is again r, as in merry 'meri.

3. When the spelling is r followed by a consonant letter or a silent e, or when it is at the end of a word, then the pronunciation differs in different varieties of English:

· In RP, the r is silent. The same applies to most varieties of English to Australian English, and to the other ‘non-rhotic’accents.

· In GenAm, the pronunciationis r.

· Examples:

RP GenAm

farm fɑːm fɑːrm

more mɔː mɔː r

murder 'm ɜːd 'm ɝːdər

4. in the middle or at the end of a word, r frequently affects the precedings vowel. Consequently ar, er, ir, or, ur, yr could be regarded as diagraph and air, are ear, eer, eir, ere, eur, ier, ire, oar, oor, ore, our, ure as trigraphs.

The sound r may also appear in non-rhotic accent in certain cases

where corresponding letter r is written, as when thawing is pronounced

'θɔːvɪɳ. This is known as ‘intrusive r’.

Note also the exceptional word colonel 'kɜːnəl || 'kɝː nəl.

5. The exceptional word iron is pronounced as if written iorn, namely as

'ai ̬ərn.

rh

Spelling – to sound

Where the spelling is the diagraph rh or its doubled form rrh. The pronunciation is regularly the same as that of the letter r:

r, as in rhythm 'rɪðəm, rhapsody 'ræpsədi; or

silent || r, as in catarrhkə 'tɑː || kə 'tɑːr.

	R- liaison

1. In BrE (RP) and other NON-RHOTIC accents, a word in isolation never ends in r. But in connected speech an r may be pronounced in some cases if the next word begins with a vowel sound.

2. This typically happens with a word that ends in one of the vowels ə, ɑ:,ɔ:, ɜ:, ɪə, eə, ʊə.

far fɑː || fɑːr In isolation, or before a consonant sound, this word is pronounced fɑː. But in a phrase such as far away, far out it is usually pronounced fɑːr.

near nɪə || nɪər In isolation, the RP form is nɪə. But in a phrase such as near enough it is usually pronounced nɪər.

3. Usually, as in the cases just mentioned, the spelling includes r. The added r-sound is then known as linking r. It corresponds to a historical r, now lost before a consonant or pause. (In rhotic accents, such as GenAm, this r is still always present, and is therefore not ‘linking’.)

4. In RP, however, as in other non-rhotic accents, the sound r is frequently added even if there is no letter r in the spelling. This intrusive r does not correspond to historical r, and there is no corresponding r in AmE.

comma 'kɒmə || 'kɑːmə In isolution, the RP form is 'kɒmə. But in a

phrase such as put a comma in, it is often pronounced

'kɒmər. (In GenAm it is always 'kɑːmə, whatever the

environment.)

thaw θɔː In isolation, RP thaw is θɔː. In the phrase thaw out,

instrusive r may be added, giving ˌθːr 'aʊt. (In

GenAm there is no r.)

5. In principle, LPD shows the CITATION pronunciation of words. Therefore it does not indicate places where r-liaison is likely across a word boundary. They can be inferred from the rules given above. However, LPD does show r-liaison within a word, both kinking and intrusive. Linking r within a word, being obligatory, is shown in ordinary type; intrusive r, being optional (and disapproved of by some) is shown in raised type.

storing 'stɔːrɪɳ

thawing θɔːrɪɳ

	Short vowel, long vowel

A. Spelling

1. To each vowel letter in English spelling there correspond two vowel sounds, the vowel letter then traditionally being known as ‘short’ or ‘long’ respectively (see a, e, I, o, u). (There are also other possibilities that hove no traditional names.) The following guidelines are to help you decide whether the short or long pronunciation is likely to be appropriate.

2. A single vowel letter generally counts as short

· In a word of one syllable, ending in a consonant (back, red, tip, rod, cut, hymn)

· In a stresses penultimate syllable, where the vowel is followed by two or more consonant letters (battle, jelly, middle, doctor, system).

3. A single vowel letter counts as long

· Before one consonant letter plus silent e (take, complete, time, rope, rude, type). However, there are several exceptions, including have, give, one, come, love.

· In a word of one syllable, where the vowel is not followed by a consonant (me, hi, go, flu, try).

· In a stresses penultimate syllable, where the vowel is followed by only one consonant letter, or by a vowel letter (potato, thesis, item, over, tribunal, asylum; chaos, neon, triumph, heroic, ruin, dying).

4. There are many cases not covered by these guidelines. Furthermore, the guidelines have exceptions. That is why you need a pronunciation dictionary.

B. Phonetics

5. The English vowels can also be divided into short and long on the basis

of their pronunciation. Other things being equal, a long vowel has greater

duration than a short vowel. However, vowel duration is strongly

influenced by the phonetic environment. In general, the difference

between short and long vowels is less noticeable in AmE than in BrE.

6. The short vowels are ɪ, e, æ, ɒ, ʊ, ʌ, together with the WEAK vowels

ə, I, u. Of these, æ is a special case: it is not similar to any long vowel,

and many speakers lengthen it (particularly before certain consonants,

notably b and d).

7. The long vowels are iː, uː, ɑː, ɔː, together with BrE ɜː and AnE ɝː. I

In the phonetic transcription system used in LPD, long vowels are

always written with the length mark ː, in accordance with the

PHONEME principle; but long vowels may in certain environments be

phonetically quite short.

8. The duration of diphthongs is like that of long vowels.

s

Ss

Spelling – to sound

1. Where the spelling is s, the pronunciation is regularly

s, as in sense sents (‘voiceless S’) or

z, as in rises 'raɪz ɪz (‘voiced S’).

Less frequently, it is

ʒ, as in pleasure 'pleʒə || 'pleʒər.

s may also form part of the diagraphs sh or si, and of sc or sch.

2. At the beginning of a word, the pronunciation is regularly s, as in say seɪ, sleep sliːp, stand stænd. (In this position, with spelling s, the pronunciation is never z). This also applies in compounds, for example, insight 'ɪnsaɪt. Exceptionally, the pronunciation is ʃ as the beginning of the words sure ʃɔː

ʃʊə || ʃʊər ʃɝː and sugar 'ʃʊgə || 'ʃʊgər and their derivatives (for example: assurance, sugary).

3.In the middle of word, we must take account of the letters on either side of the s.

· Where s is between a vowel letter and a consonant letter, the pronunciation is usually s if the following consonant sound is voiceless, z if it is voiced.

Thus:

s in taste teɪst;

z in wisdom 'wɪzdəm.

Before silent t, however, the pronunciation is s, as in listen 'lɪstən.

· Where s is between two vowel letters, the pronunciation may be either s, as in basin 'beɪsən, crisis 'kraɪsɪs, or

Z, as in poison 'pɔɪzən, easy 'iːzi.

There is no rule: each word must be considered separately.

Where the spelling is s between a vowel and ion, ual, ure, the pronunciation is mostly ʒ, as in explosion ɪk'spləʊʒən || ɪk'sploʊʒən (silent i) usual 'juː ʒ əl, pleasure 'pleʒə || 'pleʒər.

Where the spelling is s between a vowel and ia, ian, speakers vary: some use ʃ, some use ʒ, as in Asia 'eɪʃə or 'eɪʒə (silent i).

· Where s follows a consonant letter, the pronunciation is usually s in ls, ns, rs, or if the preceding sound is voiceless, but z otherwise. Thus:

s in consid er kən'sɪdə || kən'sɪdər, gipsy 'ʤɪpsi;

z in clumsy 'klʌmzi, observe əb'zɜːv || əb'zɝːv.

Compare insist ɪn ˈsɪst and resist rɪˈzɪst. However, in some words both pronunciations are in use, for example absorb, translate.

Where the spelling has s between l, n, r and ion, ial, ure, the pronunciation is correspondingly ʃ (with I silent), as in expulsion ɪk ˈspʌlʃən, tension, controversial. Hovewer, in –ersion, -ersia(n) AmE has Ʒ, as in Persian ˈpɜːʃən || ˈpɝːƷən.

4.Where the spelling has s at the end of a wordm or before silent e at the end

of a word, the pronunciation may be either

s, as in gas gæs, loose luːs, case keɪs, or

z, as in has hæz, choose tʃuːz, phrase freɪz.

For s in lse, nse, rse, we usually get

S, as in else els, immense ɪˈments, horse hɔːs || hɔːrs.

Beyond this, there is no ruke: each word must be considered separately. Sometimes there is a distinction between related parts of speech that are spelled identically, as with use (juːs noun, juːz verb) and close.

5.The inflectional ending – s, -es is discussed in its alphabetic place.

6. Where the spelling has double ss, the pronunciation is regularly

s, as in lesson ˈlesən, kiss kɪs.

Exceptionally, it is

z, notably in the words dessert dɪˈzɜːt || dɪˈzɝːt, possess pəˈzes, scissors ˈsɪzəz || sɪzərz and their derivatives.

In ssion, ssia, ssian, ssure, it is

ʃ, as in mission ˈmɪʃən, pressure ˈpreʃə || ˈpreʃər.

7. s is silent in various words, including island ˈaɪlənd and several words of French origin, among them corps kɔː || kɔːr, aisle, debris, précis, Grosvenor.

8. The sound s is also often written c, sc, before e, i, y.

	sh

Spelling – to sound

1. Where the spelling is the diagraph sh, the pronunciation is regularly ʃ as in sheep ʃiːp, fish fɪʃ.

2. sh is not a diagraph in words such as mishap ˈmɪshæp. The spelling of certain proper names has been reinterpreted in pronunciation so as to make a digraph: Lewisham was once Lewis plus ham, but not is now ˈlu: ̬ɪʃəm.

3. ʃ is also written in a number of other ways, including those represented in next examples: ocean, machine, precious, sugar, conscience, pressure, mission, creation.

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