Repetition is the simple repeating of a word, within a sentence or a poetical line, with no particular placement of the words, in order to provide emphasis. This is such a common literary device

Repetition is the simple repeating of a word, within a sentence or a poetical line, with no particular placement of the words, in order to provide emphasis. This is such a common literary device that it is almost never even noted as a figure of speech. It also has connotations to listing for effect and is used commonly by famous poets such as Larkin.

· Antanaclasis is the repetition of a word or phrase to effect a different meaning

"We must all hang together, or assuredly we shall all hang separately." (Benjamin Franklin)

Epizeuxis or palilogia is the repetition of a single word, with no other words in between. This is from the Greek words, "Fastening Together"^[1]

"Words, words, words." (Hamlet)

Conduplicatio is the repetition of a word in various places throughout a paragraph.

"And the world said, 'Disarm, disclose, or face serious consequences'—and therefore, we worked with the world, we worked to make sure that Saddam Hussein heard the message of the world."^[2] (George W. Bush)

Anadiplosis is the repetition of the last word of a preceding clause. The word is used at the end of a sentence and then used again at the beginning of the next sentence.^[3]

"This, it seemed to him, was the end, the end of a world as he had known it..." (James Oliver Curwood)

Anaphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of every clause. It comes from the Greek phrase, "Carrying up or Back".^[4]

"We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills, we shall never surrender." (Winston Churchill)

Epistrophe is the repetition of a word or phrase at the end of every clause."What lies behind us and what lies before us are tiny compared to what lies within us." (Ralph Waldo Emerson)

Mesodiplosis is the repetition of a word or phrase at the middle of every clause."We are troubled on every side, yet not distressed; we are perplexed, but not in despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; cast down, but not destroyed..." (Second Epistle to the Corinthians)

Diaphora is the repetition of a name, first to signify the person or persons it describes, then to signify its meaning."For your gods are not gods but man-made idols." (The Passion of Saints Sergius and Bacchus)

Epanalepsis is the repetition of the initial word or words of a clause or sentence at the end.

"The king is dead, long live the king."

Diacope is a rhetorical term meaning uninterrupted repetition of a word, or repetition with only one or two words between each repeated phrase.

Parallelism

In grammar, parallelism, also known as parallel structure or parallel construction, is a balance within one or more sentences of similar phrases or clauses that have the same grammatical structure. The application of parallelism improves writing style and readability, and is thought to make sentences easier to process.^[1]

Parallelism is often achieved using antithesis, anaphora, asyndeton, climax, epistrophe, and symploce.^[2]

In rhetoric

Parallelism is often used as a rhetorical device. Examples:

· " The inherent vice of capitalism is the unequal sharing of blessing; the inherent virtue of socialism is the equal sharing of miseries." — Winston Churchill

· "Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty." — John F. Kennedy^[2]

· "...and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." — Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address^[2]

· " We have petitioned and our petitions have been scorned. We have entreated and our entreaties have been disregarded. We have begged and they have mocked when our calamity came. We beg no longer. We entreat no more. We petition no more. We defy them." — William Jennings Bryan^[2]

Chiasmus

· In rhetoric, chiasmus (from the Greek: χιάζω, chiázō, "to shape like the letter Χ") is the figure of speech in which two or more clauses are related to each other through a reversal of structures in order to make a larger point; that is, the clauses display inverted parallelism. Chiasmus was particularly popular both in Greek and in Latin literature, where it was used to articulate balance or order within a text. As a popular example, many long and complex chiasmi have been found in Shakespeare and the Greek and Hebrew texts of theBible.^[1][2] It is also found throughout the Book of Mormon.^[3]

· Today, chiasmus is applied fairly broadly to any "criss-cross" structure, although in classical rhetoric it was distinguished from other similar devices, such as the antimetabole. In its classical application, chiasmus would have been used for structures that do not repeat the same words and phrases, but invert a sentence's grammatical structure or ideas. The concept of chiasmus on a higher level, applied to motifs, turns of phrase, or whole passages, is called chiastic structure.

· The elements of simple chiasmus are often labelled in the form A B B A, where the letters correspond to grammar, words, or meaning.

Inverted grammar

A reversed order of the grammar in two or more clauses in a sentence will yield a chiasmus.

Consider the example of a parallel sentence:

· ”He knowingly led and we blindly followed ”

Inversion

In linguistics, inversion is any of several grammatical constructions where two expressions switch their canonical order of appearance, that is, they invert. The most frequent type of inversion in English is subject–auxiliary inversion, where an auxiliary verb changes places with its subject; this often occurs in questions, such as Are you coming?, where the subject you is switched with the auxiliary are. In many other languages – especially those with freer word order than English – inversion can take place with a variety of verbs (not just auxiliaries) and with other syntactic categories as well.

When a layered constituency-based analysis of sentence structure is used, inversion often results in the discontinuity of a constituent, although this would not be the case with a flatter dependency-based analysis. In this regard inversion has consequences similar to those of shifting.

Inversion in English

In broad terms, one can distinguish between two major types of inversion in English that involve verbs: subject–auxiliary inversion and subject–verb inversion. ^[1] The difference between these two types resides with the nature of the verb involved, i.e. whether it is an auxiliary verb or a full verb.

Subject–auxiliary inversion

The most frequently occurring type of inversion in English is subject–auxiliary inversion. The subject and auxiliary verb invert, i.e. they switch positions, e.g.

a. Fred will stay.

b. Will Fred stay? - Subject–auxiliary inversion with yes/no question

a. Larry has done it.

b. What has Larry done? - Subject–auxiliary inversion with constituent question

a. Fred has helped at no point.

b. At no point has Fred helped. - Subject–auxiliary inversion with fronted expression containing negation (negative inversion)

a. If we were to surrender,...

b. Were we to surrender,... - Subject–auxiliary inversion in condition clause – see English subjunctive: Inversion in condition clauses

The default order in English is subject–verb (SV), but a number of meaning-related differences (such as those illustrated above) motivate the subject and auxiliary verb to invert so that the finite verb precedes the subject; one ends up with auxiliary–subject (Aux-S) order. This type of inversion fails if the finite verb is not an auxiliary:

a. Fred stayed.

b. * Stayed Fred? - Inversion impossible here because the verb is NOT an auxiliary verb

(The star * is the symbol used in linguistics to indicate that the example is grammatically unacceptable.)

Subject–verb inversion

The verb in cases of subject–verb inversion in English is not required to be an auxiliary verb; it is, rather, a full verb or a form of the copula be. If the sentence has an auxiliary verb, the subject is placed after the auxiliary and the main verb. For example:

a. A unicorn will come into the room.

b. Into the room will come a unicorn.

Since this type of inversion generally places the focus on the subject, the subject is likely to be a full noun or noun phrase rather than a pronoun. Third-person personal pronounsare especially unlikely to be found as the subject in this construction. For example:

a. Down the stairs came the dog. - Noun subject

b.? Down the stairs came it. - Third-person personal pronoun as subject; unlikely unless it has special significance and is stressed

c. Down the stairs came I. - First-person personal pronoun as subject; more likely, though still I would require stress

There are a number of types of subject-verb inversion in English: locative inversion, directive inversion, copular inversion, and quotative inversion. See the article on subject-verb inversion.

Detached construction

Sometimes one of the secondary parts of the sentence by some specific consideration of the writer is placed so that it seems formally independent of the word it logically refers to. Such parts of structures are called detached. They seem to dangle in the sentence as isolated parts. The detached part, being torn away from its referent, assumes a greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation".

The structural patterns of detached constructions have not yet been classified, but the most noticeable cases are those in which an attribute or an adverbial modifier is placed not in immediate proximity to its referent, but in some other position, as in the following examples:

1) "Steyne rose up, grinding his teeth, pale, and with fury in his eyes."

2) "Sir Pitt came in first, very much flushed, and rather unsteady in his gait"

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