Why do we still dice with death?

Why do we still dice with death?

If asked, ‘What are health decisions?’, most of us would answer in terms of hospitals, doctors and pills. Yet we are making a whole range of decisions about our health which go beyond this limited area; for example, whether or not to smoke, exercise, drive a motorbike, drink alcohol regularly.

What is most alarming is the fact that many young people smoke and drink excessively, and their parents turn a blind eye to it. The latest survey indicates that smoking is on the decline among adults, whereas increasing numbers of youngsters are taking up the habit. Perhaps the main reason for this is the seductive advertising campaigns aimed at young people by the tobacco companies. Other contributing factors include the wide-spread ignorance on the part of school children and the easy availability of cigarettes. Furthermore, smoking retains an image of sophisticated maturity among young people.

The main paradox is why people consistently do things which are known to be hazardous. A good example of this is smoking. Smokers run double the risk of contracting heart disease, several times the risk of suffering from chronic bronchitis, and at least 25 times the risk lung cancer, as compared to non-smokers. Although the number of deaths from smoking-related illnesses are well unpublicised, they have aroused little public interest. If we give the smokers the real figures, it is unlikely to alter their views on the dangers of smoking. The evidence shows that people are very bad at processing and understanding this kind of information.

The kind of information that tends to be relied on by the smoker is often based on personal experiences. All smokers seem to have an Uncle Bill or an Auntie Mabel who has been smoking cigarettes since they were twelve, lived to 90, and died because they fell down the stairs. And if they don’t have such an aunt or uncle, they are certain to have heard of someone who has.

Reliance on this kind of evidence and not being able to cope with ‘probabilistic’ data form the two main foundation stones of people’s assessment of risk. A third is reliance on press-publicised dangers and causes of death. According to American psychologists, people overestimate the frequency and therefore the danger of the dramatic causes of death like airplane crashes, and underestimate the undramatic, unpublicised killers like smoking which actually take a greater toll of life.

What is needed is some way of changing people’s evaluations and attitudes to the risks of certain activities like smoking. What is the solution? The ‘rational’ approach of giving people the facts and figures seems ineffective. But the evidence shows that when people are frightened, they are more likely to change their estimates of the dangers involved in smoking or any other activities. Press and television can do this very cost-effectively. Programmes like Dying for a fag vividly showed the health hazards of smoking and may have increased the chances of people giving up smoking.

So a mass media approach may work. But it needs to be carefully controlled. Overall, the new awareness of the problem of health decisions and behaviour is at least a more hopeful sign for the future.

However, we live in a consumer society where advertising and selling cigarettes is a lucrative trade. Moreover, manufacturers quite hypocritically produce a wide range of cigarettes for those who smoke and, at the same time, a variety of pills and nicotine patches for those desperate to kick the smoking habit. All in all, it would be easier to reduce the number of people who smoke or even to eliminate smoking altogether, were it not for the lackadaisical attitudes of those who have the power to do something about it.

1. The subject under discussion in this article is

A why people persist in running health risks.

B why people fail to make health decisions.

C how people estimate the dangers of smoking.

D how to use the mass media for health education.

2. The writer suggests that the main reason why people refuse to stop smoking is that

A they tend to imitate friends and relations who smoke heavily.

B they are unable to break with the habit although they know the risks.

C they are unaware of the degree of danger involved in smoking.

D they don’t accept the statistical evidence against smoking.

3. The recently conducted survey indicates that

A the number of smokers among grown-ups is diminishing.

B the number of smokers among grown-ups is rising.

C the number of smokers among teenagers is dwindling.

D the number of smokers among adults and schoolchildren has fallen.

4. The writer is concerned about the fact that the parents of teenagers abusing alcohol

A would rather pretend not to notice it.

B disapprove of it.

C convince their children to give up the habit.

D would rather discuss the problem with their children.

5. The writer believes that one of the reasons why teenagers start smoking is that

A the cigarettes are reasonably inexpensive.

B they have unrestricted access to cigarettes.

C there is no ban on smoking in public places.

D they lack self-confidence.

6. Publishing figures for health risks has little effect because people

A found them difficult to interpret.

B considered them to be exaggerated.

C were too shocked to respond to them.

D usually fail to read such reports.

7. People are inclined to regard the risk involved in smoking as

A significant.

B unavoidable.

C negligible.

D unjustifiable.

8. A reason given for using the mass media to publicise health risks is that they

A are known to be successful in changing people’s habits.

B can reach the widest cross-section of the population.

C are the only effective means of frightening people.

D are an economical way to influence large numbers of people.

9. The most optimistic aspect of this article is the fact that

A the media are having an increasing effect in health education.

B attention is being paid to how people assess health risks.

C people are becoming more concerned about their own health.

D precise figures are now available to underline health risks.

10. Combating the problem of smoking is made more difficult because

A smokers are not determined enough to give up the habit.

B manufacturers encourage people to smoke.

C manufacturers discourage people from smoking.

D the government is reluctant to deal with the problem.

W H I T E L I E S

I disapprove of people who tell lies. I believe that people should always tell the truth regardless of the consequences because HONESTY IS THE BEST POLICY. If you always tell the truth, you are unlikely to contradict yourself; but if you resort to lies, you are liable to forget your answer when asked the same question for a second time. However, a lot depends on the circumstances and sometimes the truth is extremely difficult to tell.

A white lie is a lie that is considered to be justified, innocent or even praiseworthy, if it is in the interests of the person or people to whom it is told. People tell white lies for different reasons and for different considerations. In most cases they do it so as not to upset, disappoint or embarrass their friends or acquaintances. “It’s not worth telling the truth if it is likely to spoil somebody’s mood or hurt their feelings” they say. For example, to avoid offending someone, you may invent a reason for not accepting an invitation to the party that you don’t want to go to, or you might admire a friend’s new clothes when in fact you think they are awful! Your friend has got a new hair-cut. “You look absolutely gorgeous!” you say, though, in fact, you think it’s a real nightmare. You have arranged to go on holiday with a friend of yours. At the last minute you decide not to go. You break the news to your friend, knowing that you have probably ruined his or her holiday. You realize that you have let your friend down, so you DESPERATELY try to find a good … plausible … valid excuse for missing the trip. But, the harder you try, the less convincing you sound!

You have promised to pay back some money you borrowed from a friend by a certain date. You know he or she needs the money but you cannot keep your promise…

Are you in the habit of telling lies? Are you good at telling lies? Do you happen to know any notorious liars to whom lying is their second nature? Are you fond of spreading rumours? Remember: gossiping and lying go hand in hand!

Recall the occasions on which you have told a white lie and explain why it was justified.

Compile a list of situations in which you think a white lie can be justified.

Telephoning is a better way of communicating with people

There is no need to write letters any more

It is certainly quicker to telephone than to write a letter but it may not always be the best way to communicate. The right form of communication depends, like so many other things in life, on the circumstances.

Telephoning is ideal if you want immediate action. You wouldn’t want to write to the plumber if you had water pouring through your ceiling, for example! It’s also the obvious choice if you need a quick answer to a question like “What time is the next train to Kiev?” or “Did I leave my wallet in your shop?” Many problems can be solved more easily and decisions taken more quickly if you can discuss them with someone on the phone rather than wait for a reply to a letter. Finally, few people would disagree that telephoning is a pleasant way to keep in touch with friends and family.

On the other hand, there can be a number of disadvantages to telephoning. In the first place, some problems are too complicated to explain on the phone, especially if they involve facts and figures, and it may be clearer if you set them out in a letter. Secondly, it might be important to have a record of what you say, especially if it’s a booking or a complaint. Last but not least, telephoning, especially long-distance, can be terribly expensive.

The nice thing about receiving letters is that you can keep them and re-read them. Who wouldn’t rather have a six-page letter full of news from a friend abroad than a two-minute telephone call on a bad line?

To sum up, letter writing is far from dead, in my view. Each form of communication has its advantages and disadvantages. The important thing to recognize is which is more appropriate for what you want to say, and to whom.

Дата добавления: 2015-11-04