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[1] This is mainly due to reduced household sizes. In high-income industrial countries for example, the number of households is projected to increase with an average of 3.9 million per year during the 2000-2010 period, while the population is projected to increase with only 2.8 million per year. Similar figures for China are 10.2 and 8.9 million. Figures for developing countries (except China) are 18.7 and 68.1 million, e.g. some 4 persons are added to the populations of these countries for each additional household created.
[2] In other words, rented for less than 30 per cent of the highest income of those renters. The programmes of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) often require 30 per cent of a household’s adjusted income.
[3] Including ‘Reaganomics’ and ‘Thatcherism’, and the World Bank’s almost universal imposition of structural adjustment programmes.
[4] According to the New Internationalist (1999), 40 per cent of those officially recognised as homeless in the United Kingdom became so because their parents, relatives or friends were no longer willing or able to accommodate them.
[5] People living in ‘income poverty’ are defined as those with an income of less than US$ 1.00 per day, measured in 1985 dollars at purchasing poverty parities, or roughly $1.50 per day in 1997 in the United States of America.
[6] An overview of the text of the most relevant articles/paragraphs of international instruments related to homelessness and the right to housing can be found in annex I. A more detailed overview of relevant international instruments on the right to housing can be found in a recent UNCHS (Habitat) report (1999d).
[7] Adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1988.
[8] The first United Nations Conference on Human Settlements, convened in Vancouver, Canada in 1976.
[9] See United Nations, 1991b: 114-120.
[10] See also Glasser, 1994.
[11] The latter are not included among the homeless in this report.
[12] These are unused large sewerage pipes left on the surface.
[13] Although some definitions exclude people who might be regarded as obviously homeless, i.e., men who are found on the streets at night, because they are not going to be subject to help of any kind (as in the United Kingdom).
[14] Though neither ‘permanent’ nor ‘adequate’ are self-explanatory.
[15] Although most renters have relatively long tenancies — median was 11 years in 1988 (Malpezzi and others, 1990) — in law they have no security in competition with the landlord’s kin (Tipple, 1988).
[16] For instance, the GSS referred to aspects of home as a site for adequate privacy, space, security, lighting and ventilation, basic infrastructure and location with regard to work and basic facilities — “all at a reasonable cost”. See also annex II.
[17] These categories are similar to those used in a Canadian study: literally homeless; moving in and out of homelessness; and marginally housed and at risk of homelessness (Peressini and others, 1995).
[18] BAWO, 1999; cited in UNCHS 1999c.
[19] Such choice is questionable when it was made by a child in response to parental chemical dependency and constant mobility, or one who believed that his/her leaving would provide more food for his siblings (Hertzberg, 1992).
[20] The remaining two categories which we exclude from homelessness counts are: low- income renters of private units, and people in overcrowded dwellings.
[21] Data from 1995.
[22] See annex II for details on the concept of adequate housing.
[23] These are both Hindi terms for huts, and the local term for squatter areas.
[24] See Hartman, 1985; and Hertzberg, 1992.
[25] These numbers do not include people who rotate between friends and relatives, or stay in ‘unconventional dwellings’ (Avramov, 1995). On the other hand, they are higher than in countries where fewer efforts are made to contact homeless people and, so, reflect the service-statistics-paradox.
[26] In the United Kingdom, statistics show that about 60 per cent of the statutorily homeless households were prioritised because they had one or more dependent children in 1995 (Department of the Environment statistics presented in Burrows, 1998). Hence at least half of the homeless households included at least two people (which generates the factor 1.5 used above).
[27] The data from North Rhine-Westphalia refers to 30 June each year and shows the cyclical nature of homelessness. From a level of about 50,000 homeless people in 1985 the figure fell to 36,000 in 1988, increased to 62,000 in 1994 and fell to 36,000 in 1998 (Busch- Geertsma, 1999, cited in FEANTSA, 1999).
[28] A once prosperous district of Yokohama that was rebuilt after World War II as a site for cheap hotels housing day-labourers working in construction and at the American navy base.
[29] Neither of these figures include data on the victims of war in the Balkans or in the Caucasus. Apart from the data on the Russian Federation, no data are available from any of the former Soviet republics of Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
[30] See for example Pye, 1991; and Glasser, 1994.
[31] Usable housing stock is defined as ‘pucca’ plus ‘semi-pucca’ plus serviceable ‘kutcha ’ housing. See UNCHS, 1996a.
[32] Depending on whether we assume that housing lasts 20 or 100 years, at the extremes cited here, before rebuilding or major renovation is required.
[33] United Nations Commission on Human Rights, 49th session, Resolution no. 1993/ 77.
[34] Evictions are also often effected by private land owners.
[35] This does not include cases involving effectively administered displacements carried out in settlements being located in high risk sites, such as areas under high voltage cables or in landslide zones.
[36] It should be noted that several among the Maroko people had already been evicted twice before. The first instance was the Central Lagos Clearance Scheme in the 1950s (before the visit of Queen Elizabeth), and the second was from the Faromo squatter settlement area in the mid-1960s (UNCHS, 1993).
[37] It also claimed the lives of 10,000 people while injuring 50,000. Two-thirds of the damage in monetary terms (estimated at about US $4 billion) was in housing units.
[38] The word ‘slum’ is both ill-defined and perjorative. However, it is so commonly used in India to refer to unauthorised settlements, in which conditions are usually extremely poor, that it is reasonable to continue the cited author’s use of the term in this case. In Indian legislation, slums are defined as areas that are “environmentally and structurally deficient” (India, 1988). The 1981 Census of India used the definition of slums as given in the Slum Area Act 1956 as areas where buildings are unfit for human habitation for reasons such as dilapidation, over-crowding, faulty arrangement of streets, and a lack of ventilation, light or sanitary facilities (Swaminathan, 1995).
[39] This corresponds well with data from Norway, which indicate that the average age of homeless men is 37 years and that of women 33. In fact, 47 per cent of the homeless women in Norway were younger than 30 years, compared to 31 per cent among homeless men (Ulfrstad, 1997).
[40] Homeless children will be dealt with in greater detail in chapter VI below.
[41] In many societies, unequal property inheritance rights may lead to more women becoming homeless as they lose their homes following the deaths of their husbands (see UNCHS, 1999e).
[42] This argument seems likely, but it should be kept in mind that there is not much substantive support for these claims (FEANTSA, 1999: 27).
[43] Who may be mothers but whose children are no longer with them.
[44] See Avramov, 1995; and Ulfrstad, 1997.
[45] This quotation could as readily be applied to homeless people in general.
[46] The fact that a majority of street children maintain family links has been confirmed by Scanlon and others (1998), and by research in Brazil (Judge, 1987); Colombia (Aptekar, 1988; Pineda and others, 1978; Felsman, 1981a, 1981b, 1984); Costa Rica (Valverde and Lusk, 1989); Ghana (Korboe, 1996); Kenya (Wainaina, 1981; Kariuki, 1999); Mexico (Lusk and others, 1989); and Paraguay (Carrizona and Poertner, 1992).
[47] It is hard to believe that a parent could do such a thing to a child, but Bibars (1998) contains interviews with children who claim to have been maimed by relatives (as close as uncles) so that they can beg more effectively.
[48] The Department of International Economic and Social Affairs in the United States of America has estimated that there are anywhere between 30 and 170 million street children worldwide.
[49] See Carrizona and Poertner, 1992. Among these, some have estimated the figure at between 25 and 40 million (Tacon, 1981 and 1982; UNICEF, 1985; Fall, 1986; Cosgrove,
1990). The Inter-American Children’s Institute in Uruguay placed the figure at 50 million (Lusk and others, 1989; Saraiva, 1984).
[50] Silva (1988) estimated a figure of 7 million; Hoge (1983) ten million; Tacon (1982) 13 million; UNICEF estimated 24 million in 1992 (Epstein, 1996); while Carrizosa and Poertner (1992) suggested a total of 30 million.
[51] The source of this figure, the UNICEF data quoted by Epstein (1996), seems to err on the high side in the Latin American context, and may be an over-estimate here also.
[52] Lusk (1992) presents a very similar typology. He classified the children interviewed in his study in Rio de Janeiro into four groups: family-based street workers, independent street workers, children of the streets and children of street families.
[53] According to Lusk (1992) this group, which he calls ‘independent street workers’ have weaker links to the family than the ‘family-based street workers’. They are ther largest group in his sample in Rio de Janeiro (about 50 per cent).
[54] The content of this sub-chapter is based on Patel, 1990.
[55] The content of this sub-chapter is based on Cosgrove, 1990.
[56] See for instance Agnelli, 1986; and Dallape, 1987.
[57] See for instance Dallape, 1987; Onyango and Kariuki, 1992; and Aptekar, 1993.
[58] Unequal property inheritance rights in many societies (both de facto and de jure), increase the risk of girls becoming homeless (see Lee-Smith, 1997).
[59] See for instance Agnelli, 1986; Kariuki, 1989; Kilbride and Kilbride, 1990; Nowrojee, 1990; and Onyango and Kariuki, 1992.
[60] See for instance Williams, 1983; Lusk, 1989; and Valverde and Lusk, 1989.
[61] See Human Rights Watch, 1994; Scanlon and others, 1998.
[62] The difference is that they do not have to pay the (typically) three years’ rent advance that the renter would have to find.
[63] See Felsman, 1981a; Lusk, 1989; and Valverde and Lusk, 1989.
[64] The allocation of transport money to encourage children to attend school, allowing students to attend school when their shelter is located outside of their former school district jurisdiction, etc.
[65] In prinicple, such ‘delegation’ of responsibilities to the private sector is unproblematic, as long as it also includes transfer of funds to pay for the services. Unfortunately, this is frequently not the case.
[66] See Clapham and others, 1990; Evans, 1991; and Neale, 1997.
[67] Nadije (meaning hope) is one of the largest charities in the Czech Republic.
[68] ‘Stable Housing in Place of Shelters.’
[69] Mahila Milan (which means ‘Women Together’) is a collective of women pavement and slum dwellers in Mumbai, India. It was founded by 600 women living on the pavements of Mumbai with assistance from SPARC.
[70] Citywatch: India, 6, March, 1998.
[71] See for example Swift, 1989; and Project meta 2000, 1997.
[72] FEANTSA suggests that 100 per cent would be a more appropriate target (FEANTSA, 2000a).
[73] See Blunt, 1994; and Epstein, 1996.
[74] See Innocenti Global Seminar, 1993; and Epstein, 1996.
[75] Because multihabitation is the norm across the poorer neighbourhoods of Kumasi, and given the pseudo-kinship ties that are quickly established between the discrete households sharing these compounds, access to television viewing is remarkably high for the city's poor.
[76] In France, however, there has actually been an increase (information from FEANTSA, February 2000).
[77] E.g. those in crisis poverty and those suffering from chronic disabilities.
[78] A similar analysis of the partnership approach in Sweden is found in the Swedish National Report for FEANTSA in 1997 (Sahlin 1998; cited in FEANTSA, 1999).
[79] By the Observtory on Homelessness for instance (FEANTSA, 1999).
[80] See Borner Stax and Koch-Nielsen, 1998; Sahlin, 1998; and Busch-Geertsema, 1999.
[81] See Sahlin 1998; Busch-Geertsema 1999; and FEANTSA, 1999.
[82] The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (United Nations, 1966b)
[83] Citywatch: India, 6, March, 1998.
[84] In this case, undercounting probably takes place as there is no service being offered.
[85] This is especially so in developing countries where building standards generate housing that is too costly for most people.
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