Even when the Queen is in residence, the castle left is one of England's major tourist attractions
1.3.6 The Tudors
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Henry VIII in a famous portrait by Hans Holbein right
Several significant pieces of legislation were passed during Henry VIII's reign. They included the several Acts which severed the English Church from the Roman Catholic Church and established Henry as the head of the Protes-
tant Church of England, the Acts of Union 1536-1543 (which united England and Wales into one nation) and the Witchcraft Act 1542, which punished "invoking or conjuring an evil spirit" with death.
Henry is known to have been an avid gambler and dice player. He excelled at sport - especially royal tennis - during his youth. He was also an accomplished musician, author, and poet; according to legend, he wrote the popular folk song "Greensleeves", still played today.
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Elizabeth I (1533 -1603) was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 1558 until her death. Sometimes referred to as The Virgin Queen or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth I was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. She reigned during a period of great religious turmoil in English history when Catholics attempted to regain the throne, at one point through Elizabeth's sister, Mary Queen of Scots.
Elizabeth's reign is referred to as the Elizabethan era or the Golden Age and was marked by many changes in English culture. William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson all wrote during this era. In addition, Francis Drake became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe as well as leading the defence against the Spanish Armada during the major war with Spain during Elizabeth's reign; Francis Bacon laid out his philosophical and political views; and the English colonisation of North America took place under Sir Walter Raleigh and Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Elizabeth was short-tempered and had a very strong character which probably saved her from bad political and marital alliances. She never married and ruled for 45 years.
Elizabeth 1 left
Virginia, an English colony in North America and afterwards a member of the United States, was named after Elizabeth I, the "Virgin Queen".
1.3.7 Civil War and Oliver Cromwell
The major English Civil War broke out in 1642, largely as a result of an ongoing series of conflicts between the then King, Charles I, who wanted more power
- 1.3.8 The Industrial Revolution
From about 1750, there was massive change as a largely agrarian society was
transformed by technological advances and increasing mechanisation, which was
the Industrial Revolution. Much of the agricultural workforce was uprooted from
the countryside and moved into large urban centres of production, as the steam-
based production factories could undercut the traditional cottage industries, due
to economies of scale and the increased output per worker made possible by new
technology. The consequent overcrowding into areas with little supporting infra-
structure saw dramatic increases in the rise of infant mortality, social problems and
many workers saw their livelihoods threatened by new technology. Of these, some
frequently sabotaged or attempted to sabotage factories. These saboteurs were
known as "Luddites".
The English economy boomed as the processing of raw materials such as cotton
and iron, and manufacture of goods in parallel with the growth of cities and major conurbations forever changed the face of England.
1.3.9 The British Empire
Although called 'British', the Empire was dominated by England. The credit for the first ever usage of the words "British Empire" is usually given to Doctor John Dee, Queen Elizabeth I's astrologer, alchemist, and mathematician.
The map above shows all the territories that were at one time part of the Empire.
The British Empire, in the early decades of the 20th century, ruled over a population of 400-500 million people - then roughly a quarter of the world's population - and covered nearly 30 million square kilometres, roughly 40 % of the world's land area.
The British Empire came together over 300 years through a succession of phases of expansion by trade, settlement, or conquest, interspersed with intervals of pacific commercial and diplomatic activity. Its territories were scattered across every continent and ocean, and it was described with some truth as "the empire on which the sun never sets". Arguably, its peak was reached in the 1890s and 1900s. The independence of the USA was the only major hiccup in its growth.
The Empire facilitated the spread of British technology, commerce, language, and government around much of the globe. Imperial dominance contributed to Britain's extraordinary economic growth, and greatly strengthened its voice in world affairs. Even as Britain extended its imperial reach overseas, it continued to develop and broaden democratic institutions at the homeland.
From the perspective of the colonies, the record of the British Empire is mixed. The colonies received from Britain the English language, an administrative and legal framework on the British model, and technological and economic development. During decolonialisation, Britain sought to pass parliamentary democracy and the rule of law to its colonies, with varying degrees of success. Almost all former British colonies have since chosen to join the Commonwealth of Nations, the association which replaced the Empire.
The Victorian Era was at the height of the Industrial Revolution, a period of great social, economic, and technological change in the United Kingdom.
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m m*
Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria) (1819 -1901) was a Queen, reigning from 20 June 1837 until her death sixty-three years later. As well as being queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, she was also the first monarch to use the title Empress of India.
Victoria was the last monarch of the House of Hanover; her successor belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
Victoria at the time of her coronation right
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In 1851, the first World Fair, known as the Great Exhibition of 1851, was held. Organised by Prince Albert, the exhibition was officially opened by the Queen on 1 May 1851. Despite the commercial fears of many, it proved an incredible success, with its profits being used to endow the South Kensington Museum (later renamed the Victoria and Albert Museum).
The United Kingdom was involved in the Crimean War in 1854, on the side of the Ottoman Empire and against Russia. Immediately before the entry of the United Kingdom, rumours that the Queen and Prince Albert preferred the Russian side, whose Royal family were close relatives, diminished the popularity of the royal couple. Nonetheless, Victoria publicly encouraged unequivocal support for the troops.
During Victoria's last years, the United Kingdom was involved in the two Boer Wars, which received the enthusiastic support of the Queen. These wars resulted in the victory of the British over the Dutch settlers in Southern Africa, the liquidation of the two independent republics they had founded and the incorporation of the territories into the Britsh Empire. During the later war with Germany, the Royal family changed its surname in 1917 to Windsor (after the town and castle) to minimise embarassment.
In 1906, Britain was the undisputed world's richest and most powerful nation.
1.3.10 World War 1 and the /inter-wai/ years
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, the War of the Nations, and the "War to End All Wars", was a world conflict occurring from 1914 to 1918. No previous conflict had mobilized so many soldiers or involved so many in the field of battle. Never before had casualties been so high. Chemical weapons
were used for the first time, the first mass bombardment of civilians from the sky was executed, and some of the century's first large-scale civilian massacres took place. Both the UK and the British Empire were a major force on the, eventually, winning side, while Germany led the opposing force.
WW1 proved to be the catalyst for the Russian Revolution, which would inspire later revolutions in countries as diverse as China and Cuba, and would lay the basis for the Cold War standoff between the Soviet Union and the United States. The defeat of Germany in the war and failure to resolve the unsettled issues that had caused the Great War would lay the basis for the rise of Nazism, and thus the outbreak of World War II in 1939. It also laid the basis for a new form of warfare that relied heavily on technology, and would involve non-combatants in war as never before.
The war had a shattering effect on Britain. About 750,000 members of the British armed forces died. German submarines sank about 7 million tons of British shipping. The war also created severe economic problems for Britain and shook its position as a world power.
British troops at Ypres, 1918 left
By 1920, nearly 2 million workers were unemployed. The coal industry suffered badly as people began to use oil for fuel. Trade unions tried to win gains for their members in many industries. But employers refused concessions, and strikes followed.
A General Strike occurred in 1926, when miners, supported by the Trades Union Congress, struck against reduced wages. After nine days, the main strike ended. The miners remained on strike several months longer but finally had to accept the wage cuts.
The world economic situation deteriorated in the late 1920's. By 1932, the United Kingdom had about 3 million people unemployed. The industrial districts of northern England, Scotland, and South Wales became distressed areas, each with thousands of people out of work.
The world economic crisis gradually eased. Economic growth occurred mostly in London, south-east England, and the western Midlands. In these areas, new industries produced aeroplanes, cars, radio and electrical equipment, and other items powered by oil and electricity. In the 1930s, Coventry had 142 factories making cars. Working conditions and housing in these areas were better than in the old industrial regions.
King George V died in 1936, and his oldest son became King Edward VIII. Edward wanted to marry an American divorcee, Mrs. Wallis Warfield Simpson. The government, the Church of England, and many British people objected. Edward then abdicated, gave up the throne, to marry "the woman I love." The story unravelled like a soap opera and held Britain enthralled. It was never clear whether the majority of the people supported or opposed the union.
Edward's brother became king as George VI.
Edward and Mrs. Simpson right /World War 2 and the /post-war years
German and Soviet troops marched into Poland on Sept. 1,1939. The war that Churchill had so publicly foreseen had begun. On September 3, Great Britain and France declared war on Germany. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain at once named Churchill first Lord of the Admiralty, the same post he had held in World War I. The British fleet was notified with a simple message: "Winston is back."
Chamberlain's government fell in 1940 after various military setbacks. On May 10, King George VI asked Churchill to form a new government. At the age of 66, Churchill became prime minister of Great Britain.
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The Germans had to defeat the Royal Air Force (RAF) before they could invade across the English Channel. In July 1940, the German Luftwaffe (air force) began to bomb British shipping and ports, and in September, began nightly raids on London. "The Blitz" destroyed many British cities, perhaps the worst damaged being Coventry. The RAF (Royal Air Force), though outnumbered, fought bravely and finally defeated the Luftwaffe. Churchill expressed the nation's gratitude to its airmen: "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few."
While the battle raged, Churchill turned up everywhere. He defied air-raid alarms and went into the streets as the bombs fell. He toured RAF headquarters, inspected coastal defences, and visited victims of the air raids. Everywhere he went he held up two fingers in a "V for victory" salute. To the people of all the Allied nations, this simple gesture became an inspiring symbol of faith in eventual victory.
Right the "V for victory" salute by Churchill during the war.
(It is very important to note that the victory salute is with the palm outwards. If the symbol is made with the back of the hand showing, it is an obscene gesture in Britain.)
The United States entered the war after Japan attacked Pearl Harbour on Dec. 7,1941. In August 1942, Churchill met with Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin. The Soviet Union had entered the war in June 1941, changing sides after being invaded by Germany. Almost immediately, Stalin had demanded that the British open a second fighting front in Western Europe to relieve the strain on the Soviet Union. Churchill refused saying that it would be disastrous to open a second front in 1942 because the Allies were unprepared.
In February 1945, the "Big Three" met in Yalta in the Soviet Union. The end of the war in Europe was in sight. The three leaders agreed on plans to occupy defeated Germany. Churchill distrusted Stalin, believing correctly that the Soviet Union would keep the territories in Eastern Europe that its troops had occupied. Germany surrendered on May 7, 1945, almost five years to the day after Churchill became prime minister.
About 360,000 British servicemen, servicewomen, and civilians died in the war. Great sections of London, most of Coventry and other cities had been destroyed by bombs. The war had shattered the economy, and the UK had piled up huge debts. The United States and the Soviet Union came out of the war as the world's most powerful nations.
In July, Churchill met with Truman and Stalin in Potsdam, Germany, to discuss the administration of Germany. But Churchill's presence at the meeting was cut short. He had lost his post as prime minister. An election had been held in Britain. The Conservatives suffered an overwhelming defeat by the Labour party. The Labour party's promise of sweeping socialist reform appealed to the voters. The defeat hurt Churchill deeply.
Clement Attlee became prime minister, and the Labour Party stayed in power until 1951. During those six years, the UK became a welfare state. The nation's social security system was expanded to provide welfare for the people "from the cradle to the grave." The Labour government also began to nationalize industry by putting private businesses under public control. The nationalized industries included the Bank of England, the coal mines, the iron and steel industry, the railways, the road haulage industry, gas, electricity and water.
After World War II, the peoples of Africa and Asia increased their demands for independence. In 1947, India and Pakistan became independent nations within the Commonwealth. In 1948, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) became an independent Commonwealth country. In that same year, Burma achieved independence. In 1949, the Republic of Ireland (Irish Free State) also left the Commonwealth, and Newfoundland became a province of Canada.
While the UK was breaking up its empire during the post-war years, other nations of Western Europe joined together in various organizations to unite economically and politically. The UK was reluctant to join them. Throughout history, the UK had preferred to stay out of European affairs, except to keep the balance of power
■Europe. By joining the new organizations, the UK feared it might lose some of its
■dependence, and would also be turning its back on the Commonwealth.
In the 1950's, the UK refused to join the European Coal and Steel Community ECSC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). Most important,:: did not join the European Economic Community (EEC), which eventually became the European Union (EU). This association, also called the European Common Market, was set up by France and five other nations. After the EEC showed ^igns of succeeding, the UK set up the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) with six other nations. But it was only a mild success, and the UK later regretted its refusal to join the EEC.
In the years after World War II, British foreign policy was closely allied with that of the United States. The UK joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization NATO) and fought in the Korean War (1950-1953).
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In the 1970 elections, the Conservative Party regained control of the government. Edward Heath became prime minister. In 1971, agreement was reached on terms for the UK's entry into the EEC. The UK joined the EEC in 1973. But continuing inflation, fuel shortages, major strikes, and other matters caused serious problems for the Conservative government.
Elections held in May 1979 returned the Conservatives to power. Conservative Party leader Margaret Thatcher was prime minister. She became the first woman ever to hold the office. As prime minister, Thatcher worked to reduce government involvement in the economy and promote the interests of the wealthy. Her policy was also to attempt to dismantle the Welfare State and make most services payable. A further major policy was the ending of manufacture and the production of resources, especially coal and steel, in order to focus on providing a "Service Economy" to the world.
Margaret Thatcher, the "Iron Lady", right
Initially this was successful as the government sold its interests in many industries to private citizens and businesses, and income to the state budget suddenly increased. But, in the words of Harold Macmillan, a former Conservative prime minister, she "sold off the family silver".
Since 1833, the UK has ruled the Falkland Islands, which lie about 515 kilometres east of the southern coast of Argentina. But Argentina has long claimed ownership of the islands. In April 1982, Argentine troops invaded and occupied the
Falklands. British and Argentine forces fought for control of the Falkland Islands. The Argentine forces surrendered in June 1982.
In November 1990, Thatcher was forced to resign as Conservative Party leader and prime minister, as the country started to become bankrupt, leaving a dwindling super-rich elite. She was the only prime minister ever to be bundled out of office. To the amazement of many of the population, the Conservatives managed to hold power until elections held in May 1997 resulted in a landslide victory for the Labour Party, led by Tony Blair, ending the Conservative Party's 18-year period in government. Blair had reformed the Labour Party, abandoning some of its left-wing policies to broaden its appeal to voters.
1.4 Language
As its name suggests, the English language, today spoken by billions of people around the world, originated as the language of England, where it remains the principal tongue today but the law does not recognise any language as being official. English is the only language used in England for general official business.
An Indo-European language in the Germanic family, English is closely related to Dutch, suggesting geographic proximity between the ancient Dutch and ancient Anglo-Saxons before the latter invaded Britain. As the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms merged into England, "Old English" emerged; some of its literature and poetry has survived.
Used by aristocracy and commoners alike before the Norman conquest in 1066, English was displaced in cultured contexts under the new regime by the Norman French language of the new Anglo-French aristocracy. Its use was confined primarily to the lower social classes while official business was conducted in a mixture of Latin and French. Over the following centuries, however, English gradually came back into fashion among all classes and for all official business except certain traditional ceremonies. (Some survive to this day.) But Middle English, as it had by now become, showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling.
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During the renaissance, many words were coined from Latin and Greek origins; and more recent years, Modern English has extended this custom, being always remarkable for its far-flung willingness to incorporate foreign-influenced words.
The only native spoken language in England other than English is the Cornish language, a Celtic language spoken in Cornwall, which became extinct in the 19th century but has been revived and is spoken in various degrees of fluency by A bilingual sign in Cornwall above around 3,500 people. It has no official status.
- (unlike Welsh) and is not required for official use, but is nonetheless supported national and local government under the European Charter for Regional or Mi-
-?rity Languages.
England is unusual in that there are many regional dialects and often a dialect
— ay have different accents. It is possible to travel 30 km in England and hear a noticeably different accent. Some dialects and accents are so strong that, for example, 'Geordies" from the north-east of England are often not understood by Londoners. The most famous dialect is Cockney, used in London with various similar accents in Greater London and the Home Counties. Cockney also has its famous rhyming ~'ang and many grammatical forms not used in the rest of the UK.
Different languages from around the world, especially from the former British Empire and the Commonwealth of Nations, have been brought to England by immigrants. Many of these are widely spoken within ethnic minority communities, including Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Gujarati, Chinese and Vietnamese. These are often used by official bodies to communicate with the relevant sections of the community, particularly in big cities, but this occurs on an "as needed" basis rather than as the result of specific legislation.
1.5.1 System of Government
England has no central government, instead using elements of the British system, which is itself rapidly becoming fragmented by the splitting-off of the Scottish Parliament, and to some extent, the Welsh Assembly. The existence or not of the Irish assembly has varied since the late 1960s, depending on the status of Peace Talks with Sinn Fein and the IRA.
Although there are calls by some for a Devolved (separated) English Parliament, there appears to be little popular support for independence of England from the UK - perhaps due to its dominance in the Union. Those groups that do campaign for such a thing tend to be right-wing organisations with very little popular support.
The current Labour government favoured the establishment of regional administration, claiming that England was too large to be governed as a sub-state entity. A referendum on this issue in the North East England on 4 November 2004 decisively rejected the proposal and it is unlikely that similar referendums will be held in other regions in the near future.
Local Government
England is divided into nine governmental regions: Greater London, South East England, South West England, East of England, East Midlands, West Midlands, North West England, Yorkshire and the Humber and North East England.
These are subdivided into "traditional" counties, of which there are 39, but not all of these now have any administrative identity today. Instead, the tradition of defining administrative units by population continues as Local Authorities, which mav be "Unitary", as are some counties, all 34 London Boroughs and all major cities or conurbations. The others are "Non-Unitary".
Local Government is by councils, ranked by size and level of autonomy. The most common "Non-Unitary" hierarchy is two-level with the County council being the higher level and District councils being the lower level. The two levels have different sets of responsibilities; for example, education is administered at the county level, local planning at the district level.
Large cities and conurbations have "Unitary" councils with one-level that combines the function of County and District council. Some administrative counties also are unitary as they have no layer of Districts below them.
As an example of these definitions, see the map below. The Warwickshire of 2005 has a County council and five District councils. Until 1974, today's West Midlands County was part of Warwickshire and comprised of three further Districts of Birmingham, Coventry and Solihull. Today it is three Unitary Authorities, grouped as a county. These changes were made in 1974 because the population of what is now West Midlands County grew massively after the second World War. Such changes are periodic: after the Kingdom of Mercia was assimilated into England and divided into Shires in the 11th Century, Coventry became a Shire as it was then the largest citv in the region. Coventry's status has changed many times since then.
Warwickshire and West Midlands today, above, showing the three unitary authorities in white and the non-unitary authority shaded with its five districts.
Boundaries frequently change and the number of authorities also continually varies.
1.5.2 System of Education
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Education in England dates back from medieval times -Bablake School in Coventry, shown right for example, was founded in 1344. More famous schools such as Eton College (1440), Harrow School (1572), Rugby School (1567) and Winchester College (1382) were also founded so long ago that tradition is great and long-standing. The oldest school is Westminster College, founded in 1179.
Education in England differs from the system used elsewhere in the United Kingdom as there are two basic systems: one covering England, Wales and Northern Ireland and one covering Scotland. Traditionally the English, Welsh and Northern Irish systems have emphasised depth of education whereas the Scottish system has emphasised breadth. Thus English, Welsh and Northern Irish students tend to sit a small number of more advanced examinations and Scottish students tend to sit a larger number of less advanced examinations. But English schools are allowed to vary locally, although by teenage years they have to reach identical levels for standardised qualifications.
Infant School or Primary School
Reception, acorn or pre-school - age 4 to 5
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