In a simple sentence or in 2 coordinate sentences the Past Perfect is

SENTENCE PATTERNS

In a simple sentence or in 2 coordinate sentences the Past Perfect is

used in combination with the Past Con. when both actions are

viewed from the same past moment. One action is accomplished

before that implyed the moment while the other one is still in progress.

In a complex sentence with a sub-clouse of time introduced by the

conjunction when.

The action of the principal clause closely follows that of the

sub-clause - the 2 actions form a succession of actions.

The P.I. is used in both cases.

When the 2 actions are partially simultaneous, the P.C. is used in

the principal clause and the P.I. in the when-clause.

When the 2 actions are fully simultaneous the P.I. is used in both cases.

The action of the principal clause preced that of the sub-clause.

The P.P. is used in the principal clause and the P.I. in the when-clause.

3. In a complex sentence with a when-clause containing the P.I.

in the sub-clause and the negative form of the P.P. in the principal.

There is always some indications of a measment mentioned in

the principal clause. Не прошло и 5 минут, как...

4. A complex sentence with a clause of time introduced by the

conjunction while.

The actions are fully simultaneous. The P.I. is used in the principal

and either the P.I. or P.C. in the sub-clause.

The actions are partially simultaneous. The action pf the sub-clause

serves as a background for the action of the principal, which is a shorter

accomplished action. The P.I. is used in the principal and either the P.I.

or P.C. in the sub-clause.

4) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time in-

troduced by the conjunction as soon as when the action of the

principal clause closely follows that of the subordinate clause. The

two actions form a kind of a succession of actions. Hence, the Past

Indefinite is normally used in both parts of the sentence.

5)In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time intro

duced" by the conjunction after, the Past Perfect is found

in the after-clause and the Past Indefinite in the principal clause

6)In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time in-

troduced by the conjunctions till or until when the action of the

principal clause is an action of some duration and precedes that of

the subordinate clause.

7) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time in-

troduced by the conjunction before, in which there may be two

kinds of time relations between the two actions:

a)The action of the principal clause precedes that of the

be fore-clause. Hence, the Past Perfect is found in the principal

clause and the Past Indefinite in the subordinate clause.

b)The action of one of the clauses is not fully accomplished

before the action of the other clause occurs. The unaccomplished

action is expressed by the Past Perfect. Sometimes there are indi-

cations of measure in such sentences.

8) In a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time in-

troduced by the correlatives scarcely... when, hardly... when, near

ly... when, and no sooner... than, the time relation between the

two actions is of a specific character — the action of the subordi-

nate clause takes place when the action of the principal clause is

hardly accomplished yet. Hence, the Past Perfect is found in the

principal clause and the Past Indefinite in the subordinate clause

The Past Perfect Continuous

1) Past Perfect Continuous I serves to express an action which

began before a given past moment and continued into it or up to

it. In this meaning it is parallel to Past Perfect II

2) Past Perfect Continuous II serves to express an action

which was in progress just before a given past moment and it affects

the past situation in some way. The precise time limits of

he action are not specified. In this meaning the Past Perfect Con-

tinuous is not parallel to Past Perfect II.

The Future Indefinite

The Future Indefinite may be used to express:

1)a single point action that will be completed in the future,

2)an action occupying a whole period of time in the future

3)a succession of actions in the future

4)some recurrent actions in the future

5)some permanent future actions generally characterizing the

person denoted by the subject of the sentence

The Future Continuous

1)To express an action in progress at a definite future moment.

The precise time limits of the action are not specified and the fu-

ture moment at which the action takes place is usually indicated

by an adverbial modifier or is clear from the context or situation.

2)To express an action which the speaker expects to take place

in the future in the natural course of events. It may be used with

or without time indications and generally refers to the near future

though it is also possible to use it for a more distant future

The Future Perfect

The Future Perfect is used to express an action accom-

plished before a given future moment which is usually indicated

by an adverbial modifier.

Different Means of Expressing Future Actions Compared

1) The Present Continuous is used to express a future action as

definitely settled due to one's previous decision. The action is go-

ing to take place in the near future and the time is, as a rule, indi-

cated in the sentence by means of such adverbial modifiers as to-

night, next week, in a few days, etc.

2)The Future Continuous is also one of the means of express

ing future actions The difference between the Present Continuous used

to denotea future action and the Future Continuous becomes quite evident

if we compare the following sentences

3)To be + infinitive (with to), like the Present Continuous,

serves to indicate a previous arrangement, but in addition to that

meaning it generally implies obligation resulting from that ar-

rangement. Besides, it differs from the Present Continuous in

that it does not necessarily refer the action to the near future.

The verb to be in this combination is regarded as a modal verb.

4) To be going to + infinitive is an important means of refer-

ring an action to the future which is frequently used in modern

English. It is convenient to refer to it as the "going-to form".

The "going-to form" may have the following meanings:

a) It serves to express premeditated intention which means

that the person denoted by the subject has been planning for some

time to perform the action, has been thinking of it, that some

preparation for the action has been in progress. Indications of

time are optional in this case.

b) It may also be used to show the speaker's feeling that the

action is imminent, that it is unavoidable in the near future. No

indication of time is generally needed in this case.

5)The Present Indefinite is also an important means of ex-

pressing future actions

6)The Future Indefinite. After all the other means of express-

ing future actions have been described, it is now necessary to see

what remains for the Future Indefinite proper to express

With stative verbs the Future Indefinite is used to express

any action referring to the future, without any restrictions.

With dynamic verbs the Future Indefinite is used freely only

under certain conditions:

a) In the principal clause of a complex sentence with a clause of

time, condition and concession.

b)In passive constructions

c)To express a succession of actions in the future. No other

means seems to be suitable here

d)When the time of the realization of the action is indefinite

or when its realization is remote

e)To denote actions whose realization is uncertain, doubtful

or merely supposed, as their fulfilment depends on some implied

condition.

f) In object clauses after verbs (and their equivalents) express-

ing personal views or opinions, such as to be afraid, to believe, to

be sure, to doubt, to expect, to have no doubt, to hope, to imagine,

to know, to suppose, to suspect, to think, to wonder and the like.

Sometimes these verbs are used in parenthesis.

The Present Indefinite

The Present Indefinite is used in the following cases:

1) When it serves to express recurrent (a) or permanent (b) ac-

tions in the present.

2) When it is used to express a succession of point actions tak-

ing place at the time of speaking. In this meaning it is used in

stage directions or by radio and TV commentators in describing

sports events, public functions, etc. That means that this use of

the Present Indefinite is stylistically restricted.

3) The Present Indefinite is sometimes used to express a single

action going on at the moment of speaking where normally the

Present Continuous is used.

а)The use of the Present Indefinite

becomes obligatory with stative verbs.

b)The Present Indefinite is also used for an instantaneous ac-

tion which takes place at the moment of speaking but it is not

viewed in its progress. The speaker just names the occurrence it-

self, the action as such.

4) The Present Indefinite may be used to express future ac-

tions. This occurs in four different cases:

a)Its use is structurally dependent, i.e.

compulsory, in subordinate clauses of time, condition and conces-

sion when the action refers to the future (in such cases we usual-

ly find the Future Indefinite, or modal verbs, or the Imperative

Mood in the principal clause).auses of time referring to the future

may be introduced by the conjunctions when, while, till, until,

before, after, as soon as and once.

Clauses of condition are introduced by the conjunctions if, un-

less, on condition {that), provided {providing) and in case.

Clauses of concession are introduced by the conjunctions even

if, even though, no matter how, whenever, whatever, however, etc.

b)Its use is lexically dependent in object clauses after to see

(to), to take care and to make (be) sure.

c)The use of the Present Indefinite with reference to the im-

mediate future is structurally dependent in some special questions

d) The Present Indefinite may be used to indicate a future ac-

tion which is certain to take place according to a timetable, pro-

gramme, schedule, command or arrangement worked out for a per-

son or persons officially. In this case the sentence usually contains

an indication of time

5) The Present Indefinite is used in literary style to describe a

succession of actions in the past, usually to make a vivid narrative

of past events. This application of the Present Indefinite is often

called in grammars the historic or dramatic present.

The Present Continuous

The Present Continuous is used with dynamic verbs in

the following cases:

1) To express an action going on at the present moment, i.e.

the moment of speaking.

The precise time limits of the action are not known, its begin-

ning and its end are not specified. The indication of time is not

necessary in this case though occasionally such adverbial modifiers

as now and at present are found.

2) To express an action going on at the present period. In this

case the precise time limits of the action are not known either. Be-

sides, the action may or may not be going on at the actual moment

of speaking. As in the previous case, indications of time are not

necessary here either.

3) To express actions generally characterizing the person de-

noted by the subject, bringing out the person's typical traits. Of-

ten the adverbial modifiers always and constantly are found in

these sentences,

4) To express actions which will take place in the near future

due to one's previous decision. For that reason the action is re-

garded as something definitely settled. We usually find an indica-

tion of future time in this case

THE PRESENT PERFECT

Present Perfect I

It is used to express an accomplished action which is viewed from the

moment of speaking as a part of the present situation.

P.P. 1 is used to:

open up a conversation;

introduce a new topic;

sum up a situation.

In special qestions introdused by when, where, how the Past Indefinite is

used.

P.P. II

It is used to express an action which began before the moment of speaking

and continues into it/up to it.

P. P. II is used:

with stative verbs;

in negative sentence when the action itself is completely negated;

with adverb since which indicates the starting point of the action (in the

sub-clause the Future Indefinite is used or if there are 2 parallel actions –

the Present Perfect is used in both cases);

with the preposition for/in which denotes the whole period of duration

of the action.

P.P. III

It is found in adverbial clauses of time introduced by the conjunction

when (before, after, as soon as, till, untill) where it is used to express a

future action. It shows that the action of the sub-clause will be accomplished

before the action of the principal clause (where the Future Indefinite is used).

THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

P. P. C. I

It serves to express an action which began before the moment of speaking and

continues into it or up to it. It is used if the duration of action is important.

P. P. C. II

It's used to express an action which was in progress quite recently and which in

some way effects the present situation.

THE PAST INDEFINITE

It's used to express:

a single action which took place in the past;

an action which occupied a whole period of time now over;

in narration to express a succession of actions;

recurrent actions (often, ever, never, for days);

permanent actions which indicate continues, uninterrupted processes in

the past, giving a general characteristic of the person/thing denoted by the subject;

an action going on at the given past moment: with stative verbs; with certain

durative verbs: to sit, to lie, to wear, to speak, to shine, to gleam, to hang, to talk,

to carry, to walk, to stand.

THE PAST CONTINUOUS

It's used to express:

an action which was going on at a given past moment;

an action going on at given period of time in the past;

actions characterizing the person denoted by the subject (with such

adverbial modifiers as always and constantly);

to indicate a future action viewed from the past. It is an action which was

supposed to take place in the near future due to one's previous decision.

The Past Perfect

1) Past Perfect I serves to express an action accomplished be-

fore a given past moment and viewed back from that past moment.

It may be a single point action, an action of some duration or a re-

current action.

It is thefunction of the Past Perfect to mark this step back in narration

2) Past Perfect II serves to express an action which began be-

fore a given past moment and continues into it or up to it. This

grammatical meaning is mainly expressed by the Past Perfect Con-

tinuous

a)With stative verbs where its use is compulsory

b)With some dynamic verbs of durative meaning where the

Past Perfect (Non-Continuous) may be used instead of the Past

Perfect Continuous with little difference in meaning.

c)In negative sentences, when the action itself is completely

negated, Past Perfect II is preferred to the Past Perfect Con-

tinuous.

3) In adverbial clauses of time introduced by the conjunctions

when, before, after, as soon as and till/until to express a future

action viewed from the past. It shows that the action of the sub-

ordinate clause will be completed before the action of the princi-

pal clause which is usually expressed by the Future-in-the-Past.

This use of the Past Perfect is structurally dependent as it is

restricted only to the above-mentioned type of clauses. Besides, it

is found only in reported speech.

Reported speech

Statements are put into reported speech by means of an object clause

introduce by the conj that or without it. Syndatically or without it with.

The following introductory verbs are used: to say if the person addressed

are not mentioned to tell if the person addressed are mentioned.

Interrogetive sent are put into reported speec by the following introductory

verbs: to ask. To want.to know. To wonder. To be interested to know.

General guestions are put into reported speech by means of the conj

if/wheter. The word order is always direct.

Special questions ….of interrogative adverbs or pronouns;

who,what,how,when.

Imperative sentences are put into reported speech by the infinitive.

To tell sb to,to order sb to do, to ask sb to do smth,

to request sb to do smth, to beg sb.

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