1.Introduction. General notes on styles & stylisticsStylistics, sometimes called lingua-stylistics, is a branch of general linguistics. It deals with 2 interdependent tasks: a)the

1.Introduction. General notes on styles & stylistics Stylistics, sometimes called lingua-stylistics, is a branch of general linguistics. It deals with 2 interdependent tasks: a)the investigation of the inventory of special lang. media which by their ontological features secure the desirable effect of the utterance; b)certain types of texts which due to the choice & arrangement of lang. means are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the com\n. first of all there’s confusion between terms style and stylistics. The 1^st concept is so broad that it’s hardly possible to regard it as a term. We speak of style in architecture, literature, behavior, dress & in other fields of human activity. Even in linguistics the word style is used so widely that it needs interpretation. The majority of linguists agree that the term style applies the following fields of investigation: 1)the aesthetic function of lang. 2)expressive means in lang. 3)synonymous way of rendering one & the same idea. 4)emotional coloring in lang. 5)a system of special devices called stylistic devices. 6)the interrelation between lang & thought. The term style is also applied to teaching of how to write clearly, simply. The term individual style is applied to that sphere of linguistic & literary science which deals with the peculiarities of a writer’s individual manner of using lang. means to achieve the effect he desires. The 2 aims of stylistics are clearm, ly discernible as 2 separate fields of investigation. The types of texts that are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of com\n are called functional styles of lang. (FS), the special media of lang. which secure the desirable effect of the utterance are called stylistic devices (SD) and expressive means	2. 2.Expressive means & stylistic devices All stylistic means of a lang. can be divided into expressive means (EM), which are used in some specific way & special devices called stylistic devices. (SD) The EM of a lang. are those phonetic means, morphological forms, means of word-building & lexical, phraseological & syntactical forms, all of which function in the lang. for emotional or logical intensification of the utterance. These intensifying forms of he lang. recognized by their semantic function have been fixed in grammars & dictionaries. Some of them are normalized & good dictionaries label them as intensifiers. The most powerful EM of any lang. are phonetic. Among the morphological EM the use of Present Indefinite instead of the Past indefinite must be mentioned first. The use of shall in the 2^nd and 3^rd person may also be regarded as an EM. F\e, He shall do it (I shall make him do it). He has to do it (It is necessary for him to do it). What is a stylistic device? It is a conscious & intentional literary use of some of the facts of lang. Most SDs may be regarded as aiming at the further intensification of the emotional & logical emphasis contained in the corresponding expressive means. The interrelation between EM and SD can be worded in terms of the theory of information. EM have a greater degree of predictability than SDs. EM are used in lang. SDs carry greater amount of information because if they are at all predictable they are less predictable than EMs. It follows that SD must be regarded as a special code which has still deciphered.	3. The problem of the English literary lang. In order to get an objective description of the nature, peculiarities & functional characteristics of the styles & SD of lang. it’s necessary to make clear what is meant by the literary lang. Literary lang. is a historical category. It exists as a variety of the national lang. ‘It must be remembered’ said A.M.Gorki, ‘that lang. is the creation of the people.’ The literary lang. is that variety of national lang. which imposes definite morph\l, phonetic, syntactical, lex\l & stylistic norms. There are 2 conflicting tendencies in the process of establishing the norm: 1. Preservation of the already existing norm, sometimes with attempts to re-establish old forms of the lang; 2. Introduction of new norms not yet firmly established. In this connection it’ll be interesting to quote the following lines from Wyld’s “History of Modern colloquial english”. “If it were necessary to attempt to formulate general tendencies in Received Standard English during the last 300 centuries, we should name 2. The 1^st is the gradual decay of ceremoniousness & formality which has overtaken the speech & modes of address, no less than the manners of good society. The 2^nd of the effort is the use of crude expressions, definitely ruled out as incorrect, vulgar, many pronunciations & gram\l constructions which had arisen in the natural course of the development of Eng. These social changes have brought with them changes in manners & in speech.
4. A brief outline of the development of the Eng. literary lang. The English literary lang. has had a long & peculiar history. The Eng. lang. is the result of the integration of the tribal dialects of the Angles, Saxons & Jutes who occupied the British Isles in the 3^rd-5^th c. The 1^st manuscript of the lang. belong to the 8^th c. During the next stage of its development, known as the Middle English period, the Eng. lang. progressed towards its present state. By this time it had enlarged its vocabulary by borrowings from Norman-French & other lang. The new English period is usually considered to date from the 15^th c. This is the beginning of the English lang. known, spoken & written at the present time. This period cannot be characterized by any degree of uniformity in the lang. The influence of various dialects was felt, but the London dialect was winning general recognition. But the process of establishing the London speech as a single norm throughout the country was very slow. In the 16^th c. literary English began to flourish. The rapid development of printing went parallel with the general growth of culture, to which much was contributed by the 2 universities, Oxford & Cambridge. In the 2^nd half of the 16^th c. literature began to flourish in all forms, drama, poetry & prose. To give a general idea of the factors influencing the development of literary English in the 15^th& 16^th c., we should point out the following 3: 1) a common interest in classical literature during the Renaissance; 2) a desire to keep the lang. pure, to retain old English words. This tendency has been called archaic purism. 3) developing & changing norms of the colloquial lang. 17^th c. literary Eng. is characterized by a general tendency to refinement & regulation. By the 18^th c. the aim of scholars were to fix the lang. for all time, to establish its laws once & for all. The 19^th c. in literary Eng. are best summarized in the following statement by McKnight: “The lang. must not only be made more regular, but it must be protected from influences like vulgarisms.”	5.49.Varieties of lang. The aactual situation of the com\n has evolved 2 varieties of lang.: spoken & written. Of the 2 varieties of lang. diachronically spoken is primary & written is secondary. Each of these varieties has developed its own features & qualities. The situation in which the spoken variety of lang. is used can be described as the presence of interlocutor. The written variety presupposes the absence of interlocutor. The spoken lang. is maintained in the form of a monologue. Thee spoken lang. has a considerable advantage over the written, in that the human voice comes into play. This is the powerful means of modulating the utterance, as are all kinds of gestures, which together with the intonation give additional information. Indeed the rise & the fall of the voice. The written lang. has to produce an enlarged representation of the com\n. The written language is able to live forever with the idea it expresses. The spoken language can not be detached from the user of it, the written language can be detached and objectively looked at. The writer has an opportunity to correct and improve what has been put on paper. The spoken language differs from the written language phonetically, morphologically, lexically and syntactically. The most striking difference between the spoken and the written language is in the vocabulary used. There are words and phrases typically colloquial, on the one hand, and typically bookish, on the other hand. If colloquial words and phrases find their way in the written language, they immediately produce a marked stylistic effect and can be used for the speech characterization, for example. Such words as sloppy, I take it (I understand it) belong to the spoken variety of lang.	6.Types of lexical meaning. A number of SDs are based on the peculiar use of lexical meanings. The meaning will always direct the mind to the object we think of. Therefore we distinguish between lexical & gram\l meaning. Both of them may be polysemantic. There are 3 types of lex\l meaning: logical, emotive & nominal. Logical meaning is the precise meaning of a feature of the idea, phenomenon or object, the name by which we recognize the whole of the concept. This meaning is also called referential or direct meaning. We shall use the terms logical & referential as being more adequate for our purpose. It’s necessary to distinguish between primary & secondary logical meaning. Thus the adverb inwardly has the primary logical meaning of internally or within. Its secondary logical meanings are: towards the centre, secretly. The 2^nd is emotive meaning. It also materializes a concept in the word, but unlike logical meaning, emotive meaning has reference not directly to things or phenomena of objective reality, but to the feelings & emotions of the speaker towards these things or to his emotions. Some classes of words have lost their logical meaning & function in the sentence as interjections. Such words as alas, oh, ah and the like have no logical meaning; words like the devil, Christ, God are used in their emotive meaning. And finally we come to nominal meaning. There are which, while expressing concepts, indicate a particular object out of a class. These words are classified in grammars as proper nouns. The nature of these words can be understood if we have a clear idea of the difference between 2 main aspects of a word: “signification” & “NOMINATION”. Let’s take the word table. The 1^st thing that appears in our mind is the general notion deprived of any concrete features or properties. This is signification. But by the word table we may also denote a definite table. This is nomination.
7.Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. In accordance with the division of language into literary and colloquial, we may represent the whole of the word stock of the English language as being divided into 3 main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialect character. The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words: 1. common literary; 2. terms and learned words; 3. poetic words; 4. archaic words; 5. barbarisms and foreign words; 6. literary coinages including nonce-words. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles and in all spheres of human activity. It is this that makes the layer the most stable of all. The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English or American dictionaries is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates. The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1. common colloquial words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4. professional words; 5. dialect words; 6. vulgar words; 7. colloquial coinages. The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary and those in the colloquial layer are regarded as special colloquial (non-literary) vocabulary. Neutral, common literary and common colloquial vocabulary Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is the neutral stock of words that is so far prolific in the production of new meanings. Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. Common colloquial vocabulary overlaps into the standard English vocabulary and is therefore to be considered part of it. It borders both on the neutral vocabulary and on the special colloquial vocabulary, which falls out of the standard English altogether. The stylistic function of the different strata of the English vocabulary depends not so much on the inner qualities of each of the groups, as on their interaction when they are opposed to one another. 10.Lexical expressive means & stylistic devices The stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its struc­ture and sense. There is another thing to be taken into account which, in a certain type of communication, viz. belles-lettres, plays an impor­tant role. Now let us see what phonetic SDs secure this musical function. Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc), by things (machines or taols, etc), by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet, etc) and by animals. Combinations of speech sounds of this type will inevitably be associated with whatever produces the natural sound. There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect. Direct is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as ding-dong, buzz, bang. Indirect is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It’s sometimes called echo-writing. F|e: And s ilken, s ad, un c ertain ru s tling or each purple curtain. Alliteration is a phonetic SD which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. “ D eep into d arkness, long I stoo d there won d ering.” Alliteration in the English lang. is deeply rooted in the traditions of English folklore. It is used as a well tested means not only in verse but in emotive prose, in newspaper headlines, in the titles of books, in proverbs & sayings. “ S ense and S ensibility”, “ P ride and P rejudice”. Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. We distinguish between full rhyme & incomplete rhyme. The full rhyme presupposes identity of vowel the vowel sound & the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable, as in might right. Incomplete rhymes can be divided into vowel & consonant rhyme. In vowel rhymes the vowels are identical, but consonants may be different: f le sh-f re sh-p re ss. Consonant rhymes show the concordance in consonants & disparity in vowels, as in wor th -for th. Another variety of rhyme is internal. The rhyming words are placed not at the end of the line but within the line. Rhythm is a flow, movement, procedure characterized by regular recurrence of elements or feature. Rhythm in lang. demands oppositions that alternate: long, short; stressed, unstressed; high, low & other segments of speech.	8.50.Special literary vocabulary They are not registered in dictionaries, whereas barbarisms are. Foreign words are often italicized, barbarisms on the contrary, are not made conspicuous in the text. There are foreign words in the EV which fulfil a terminological function ( kolkhoz, ukase, udarnik) and reflect an objective reality of some country. Terminological borrowings have no synonyms; barbarisms- have. Their functions: to express a concept non-existant in English reality, to supply local colour as a background to the narrative, reproduce actual manner of speech and environment of the hero, to elevate the language (words which we don’t quite understand have a peculiar charm), “exactifying” function – to express some exact meaning (au revoir vs. good-bye). e) Literary Coinages (Including Nonce-Words) Neologism - 'a new word or a new meaning for an established word.' Every period in the development of a language produces an enormous number of new words or new meanings of established words. Most of them do not live long. They are not meant to live long. They are coined for use at the moment of speech, and therefore possess a peculiar property —that of temporariness. The given word or meaning holds only in the given context and is meant only to " serve the occasion. " However, such is the power of the written language that a word or a meaning used only to serve the occasion, when once fixed in writing, may become part and parcel of the general vocabulary. The coining of new words generally arises first of all with the need to designate new concepts resulting from the development of science and also with the need to express nuances of meaning called forth by a deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon in question. It may also be the result of a search for a more economical, brief and compact form of utterance which proves to be a more expressive means of communicating the idea. The first type of newly coined words, i.e. those which designate newborn concepts, may be named terminological coinages. The second type, i.e. words coined because their creators seek expressive utterance may be named stylistic coinages. Among new coinages of a literary-bookish type must be mentioned a considerable layer of words appearing in the publicistic style, mainly in newspaper articles and magazines and also in the newspaper style— mostly in newspaper headlines. Another type of neologism is the nonce-word – a word coined to suit one particular occasion. They rarely pass into the standard language and remind us of the writers who coined them. 11. Interaction of different types of lexical meaning. Metaphor. Metonymy. Irony. Words in context may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in dictionaries, contextual meanings. Transferred meaning is practically the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual meaning. The stylistic device based on the principal of identification of two objects is called a metaphor. The SD based on the principle of substitution of one object to another is called metonymy and the SD based on contrary concepts is called irony. A metaphor becomes a SD when two different phenomena are in the same time brought to mind by the imposition of some of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties..E: Dear nature is the kindest Mother still. Mother arouses in the mind the actions of nursing, weaning, caring for. Metaphor like all SD can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Metaphors which are absolutely unexpected are called genuine metaphors. Those which are commonly used in speech and sometimes fixed in dictionaries called trite metaphors. Genuine metaphors regarded as belonging to language-in-action, trite metaphors belong to the language-as-a system. F.e:a shadow of the smile. Metonymy is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meaning, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent.Thus the word crown may stand for king or queen, cup or glass for the drink it contains. Metonymy used in language-in-action i.e contextual metonymy, is genuine metonymy and reveals a quite unexpected substitution. Irony is a stylistic device also based on the same time realization of two logical meanings stand in opposition to each other for example: it must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.	9.48.Special colloquial vocabulary Colloquial words mark the message as informal, non-official, conversational. Apart from general colloquial words, widely used by all speakers of the language in their everyday communication (e. g. "dad", "kid", "crony", "fan", "to pop", "folks").: a)slang – seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present day English. Slang is much rather a spoken than a literary language. It originates, nearly always, in speech. b) Jargon – is a recognized term for a group of words that exists in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. Thus the word grease means ‘money’; loaf means ‘head’; c) professionalisms, as the term itself signifies, are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home. They commonly designate some working process or implement of labour. d) Dialectical words are those which in the process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is generally confined to a definite locality. e) vulgarism. f) colloquial coinages -unlike those of a literary bookish character, are spontaneous. e) Vulgar words or vulgarisms Vulgarisms are:1) expletives and swear words which are of an abusive character, like 'damn', 'bloody', 'to hell', 'goddam' and, as some dictionaries state, used now, as general exclamations;2) obscene words. These are known as four-letter words the use of which is banned in any form of intercourse as being indecent. The function of expletives is almost the same as that of interjections, that is to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger, vexation and the like. They are not to be found in any functional style of language except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the characters. f) Colloquial coinages (words and meanings) Colloquial coinages (nonce-words), unlike those of a literary-bookish character, are spontaneous and elusive. Not all of the colloquial nonce-words are fixed in dictionaries or even in writing and therefore most of them disappear from the language leaving no trace in it.Unlike literary-bookish coinages, nonce-words of a colloquial nature are not usually built by means of affixes but are based on certain semantic changes in words that are almost imperceptible to the linguistic observer until the word finds its way into print. 12.30.Interaction of primary and derivative logical meanings. Polysemy. Zeugma. Pun. In dealing with the problem of nonce-words and new meanings we have already stated the fact that in the development of language units we are constantly facing the opposing concepts of permanence and ephemerality. Some meanings are characterized by their permanence, others like nonce-words and contextual meanings are generally ephemeral. Polysemy is a category of lexicology and as much belongs to language – as- a system. In actual everyday speech polysemy vanishes unless it is deliberately retained for certain stylistic purposes. A context that does not seek to produce any particular stylistic effect generally materializes but one definite meaning. The word hate materializes several meanings. Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being, on the one hand, and on the other, transferred.Dora, at plunging at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room. To plunge materializes the meaning to rush into. The pun is another SD based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of to a word or phrase. It is difficult to draw a hard and fast distinction between zeugma and pun. The only reliable distinguishing feature is a structural one: zeugma is the realization of two meanings with the help of a verb which is made to refer to different subjects or objects. The pun is more independent. There need not necessarily be a word in the sentence to which the pun-word refers. Bow to the board said Bumble.
13.29.Interaction of logical and emotive meanings. Interjections and exclamatory words. The epithet. The oxymoron. It must be clearly understood that the logical and the emotive are built into our minds and they are present there in different degrees when we think of various phenomena of objective reality. Different emotional elements may appear in the utterance depending on its character and pragmatic aspect. The emotional elements of the language have a tendency to wear out and are constantly replaced by new ones. Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings strongly and which may be said to exist in language as conventional symbols of human emotions. The role of interjections in creating emotive meanings has already been dealt with. It remains only to show how the logical and emotive meanings interact and to ascertain their general functions and spheres of application. In traditional grammars the interjection is regarded as a part of speech, as the noun, adjective, verb, etc. Oh, where are you going to, all you Big Steamers? The interjection oh by itself may express various feelings, such as regret, despair, disappointment, sorrow, woe, surprise, astonishment, lamentation, entreaty and many others. Interjections can be divided into primary and derivative. Primary interjections are generally devoid of any logical meaning. Derivative interjections may retain a modicum of logical meaning, though this is always suppressed by the volume of emotive meaning. Oh, ah, bah, pooh, gosh, hush, alas are primary interjections, though some of them once had logical meaning. Some adjectives and nouns adverbs also take on the function of interjections> terrible! Awful etc. The epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence used to characterize an object and pointing out to the reader, and frequently imposing on him, some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features. The epithet makes a strong impact on the reader, so much so, that he unwittingly begins to see and evaluate things as the writer wants him to. Epithets can be classified as semantic and structural. Semantically they may be divided into associated and unassociated.Associated those which point to a feature which is essential to the objects they describe the idea expressed in the epithet is to a certain extent inherent in the concept of the object. Dark forest, dreary midnight, careful attention. Unassociated epithets are attributes used to characterize the object by adding a feature not inherent in it, bootless cries, sullen earth, voiceless sands. Oxymoron is a combination of two words in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense, low skyscraper, sweet sorrow, nice rascal, pleasantly ugly face, horribly beautiful. Oxymoron has one main structural model: adj+noun. In the adv+adj model the change of meaning in the first element, the adverb, is more rapid, resistance to the unifying process not being so strong.	14.28.INTENSIFICATION OF A CERTAIN FEATURE OF A THING OR PHENOMENON In order to understand the linguistic nature of the SDs of this group it is necessary to clear up some problems, so far untouched, of d e f i n i-t i оп as a philosophical category, Any definition can point out only one or two properties of a phenomenon* Therefore in building up a definition the definer tries to single out the most essential features of the object. In the third group of stylistic devices, we find that one of the qualities of the object in question is made to sound essen­tial. In this third group the quality picked out may be seemingly unimportant, and it is frequently transitory but for a special reason it is elevated to the greatest importance and made into a telling feature,The intensification of some one feature of the concept in question is realized in a device called simile To use a simile is to characterize one object by bringing it into contact with an­other object belonging to an entirely different class of things. Simile excludes all the properties of the two ob­jects except one which is made common to them"Maidens, like moths, are ever caught by glare" (Byron),Similes have formal elements in their structure: connective words such as like, as, such as, as if, seem. Another SD which also has the function of intensifying one certain property of the object described is h у p e r b о l e. It can be defined as a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential (unlike periphrasis) to the object or phenomenon. In its extreme form this exagge­ration is carried to an illogical degree, sometimes ad absurdum. A thousand pardons'; 'scared to death\ 'immensely obliged;' 'I'd give the world to see him.' Byron says:"When people say "I’ve told you fifty times" They mean to scold, and very often do." Hyperbole is a device which sharpens the reader's ability to make a logical assessment of the utterance. This is achieved, as is the case with other devices, by awakening the dichotomy of thought and feeling where thought takes the upper hand though not to the detriment of feeling.	15.Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices. Stylistic inversion. Detached construction. Sometimes one of the secondary parts of a sentence by some specific consideration of the writer is placed so that it seems formally independent of the word it logically refers to. Such parts of structures are called detached. They seem to dangle in the sentence as isolated part. The detached part, being torn away from its referent, assumes a greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation. The structural patterns of detached constructions have not yet been classified, but the most noticeable cases are those in which an attribute or an adverbial modifier is placed not in immediate proximity to its referent, but in some other position. Steyne rose up, gringing his teeth, pale and with fury in his eyes. Chiasmus belongs to the group of SD based on the repetition of a syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words and phrases. The stricter of two successive sentences or parts of a sentence may be described as reversed parallel construction. As high as we have mounted in delight. Chiasmus sometimes achieved by a sudden change from active voice to passive or vice verse.Repetition is an expressive means or language used when the speaker is under the stress of strong emotion. It shows the state of mind of the speaker: Don’t tell me! I don’t wanna hear! I don’t wanna hear.Antanaclasis is the repetition of a word or phrase to effect a different meaning "We must all hang together, or assuredly we shall all hang separately." (Benjamin Franklin)Epizeuxis or palilogia is the repetition of a single word, with no other words in between. This is from the Greek words, "Fastening Together"^[1] "Words, words, words." (Hamlet) Conduplicatio is the repetition of a word in various places throughout a paragraph. "And the world said, 'Disarm, disclose, or face serious consequences'—and therefore, we worked with the world, we worked to make sure that Saddam Hussein heard the message of the world."^[2] (George W. Bush) Anadiplosis is the repetition of the last word of a preceding clause. The word is used at the end of a sentence and then used again at the beginning of the next sentence.^[3]"This, it seemed to him, was the end, the end of a world as he had known it..." (James Oliver Curwood) Anaphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of every clause. It comes from the Greek phrase, "Carrying up or Back".^[4] "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills, we shall never surrender." (Winston Churchill) Epistrophe is the repetition of a word or phrase at the end of every clause. "What lies behind us and what lies before us are tiny compared to what lies within us." (Ralph Waldo Emerson) Mesodiplosis is the repetition of a word or phrase at the middle of every clause. "We are troubled on every side, yet not distressed; we are perplexed, but not in despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; cast down, but not destroyed..." (Second Epistle to the Corinthians) Diaphora is the repetition of a name, first to signify the person or persons it describes, then to signify its meaning. "For your gods are not gods but man-made idols." (The Passion of Saints Sergius and Bacchus) Epanalepsis is the repetition of the initial word or words of a clause or sentence at the end. "The king is dead, long live the king." Diacope is a rhetorical term meaning uninterrupted repetition of a word, or repetition with only one or two words between each repeated phrase. Climax/Gradation is the arrangement of sentences which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance or emotional tension in the utterance. The gradual increase in significance may be maintained in three ways: logical, emotional and quantitative. Emotional climax is mainly found in sentences. It was a lovely city, a beautiful city, a fair city, a veritable gem of a city. Quantitative climax is an evident increase in the volume of the concepts: They looked at hundreds of houses, they climbed thousands of stairs, they inspected innumerable kitchens. The function of this stylistic device is to show the relative importance of the things as seen by the author.

16.Peculiar ways of combining parts of the utterance. Asyndeton. Polysyndeton The definition of means of combining parts of an utterance, rests on the assumption that any unit of language might, in particular cases, turn into a connective. Such phrases as that is to say, it goes without saying, for the which, however, the preceding statement and the like should also be regarded as connectives. Asyndeton, that is, connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign, becomes a stylistic device if there is a deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language. Here is an example: "Soames turned away; he had an utter disinclination for talk like one standing before an open grave, watching a coffin slowly lowered." (Galsworthy). Polysyndeton is the stylistic device of connecting sentences, or phrases, or syntagms, or words'by using connectives (mostly conjunc­tions and prepositions) before each component part, as in: "The heaviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could boast qf the advantage over him in only one respect." (Dickens) The repetition of conjunctions and other means of connection makes an utterance more rhythmical; so much so that prose may even seem like verse. The conjunctions and other connectives, being generally un­stressed elements, when placed before each meaningful member, will cause the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables — the essential requirement of rhythm in verse. Hence, one of the functions of polysynde­ton is a rhythmical one.	17.Peculiar use of colloquial constructions. Represented speech. Emotional syntactical, structures typical of the spoken variety of language are sometimes very effectively used by men-of-letters to depict the emotional state of mind of tha characters; they.may even be used, in particular-cases, in the narrative of the author. But even when used in the dialogue of novels and stories these emotional constructions, being deprived of their accompaniment—intonation—assume a greater signifi­cance and become stylistically marked. Here the emotional structures stand out more conspicuously, because they are thrown into prominence not by the intonation pattern but by the syntactical pattern. Consequently, it will be found necessary to classify some of the most typical structures of these kinds, in spite of the lurking danger of confus­ing idiomatic phrases (set expressions, phraseological units) with abstract patterns. a) One of the most typical patterns is a simple statement followed by the pronoun that+noun (pronoun)+verb to be (in the appropriate form), for example: "June had answered in her imperious brisk way, like the little embodiment of will that she was." (Galsworthy) "And Felix thought: 'She just wants to talk to me about Derek, Dog in the manger that I am.'"b) Another pattern is a-question form with an exclamatory meaning expressing amazement, indignation, excitement, enjoyment, etc., for example:"Old ladies, Do I ever hate them?" "He said in an awestruck voice: 'Boy, is that a piece of boat!'" "And boy, could that *guy spend money "And was Edward pleased!" "'Look', she said. 'Isn't that your boss there, just coming in?' 'My God! Yes,' said Lute, 'Oh, and has he a nice package?' Til say. That's his wife with him, isn't it?'" O'Hara) "A witch she is. I know her back in the old country. Sure, and didn't she come over on the same boat as myself?" (Betty Smith)	18.The belles-lettres style. Language of poetry. Emotive prose. Language of the drama. the belles-lettres style is a generic term for three substyles in which the main principles and the most general properties of the style are materialized. These three sub-styles are: ' 1. The language of poetry, or simply verse.2. Emotive p г о s e, or the language of fiction.3. Т'he language of the dr a ma. Each of these substyles has certain common features, typical of the general belles-lettres style, which make up the foundation of the style, by which the particular style is made recognizable and can there­fore be singted out. The purpose of the belles-lettres style is not to prove but only to suggest a possible interpretation of the phenomena of life by forcing the reader to see the viewpoint of the writer. This is the cognitive function of the belles-lettres style. The belles-lettres style is individual in essence. 1. LANGUAGE OF POETRY The first substyle we shall consider is v e r s e. Its first differentiating property is its orderly form, which is based mainly on the rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of the utterances. The rhythmic aspect calls forth syntactical and semantic peculiarities which also fall into a more or less strict orderly arrangement. Rhythm and rhyme are immediately distinguishable properties of the poetic substyle provided they are wrought into compositional patterns. They can be called the external differentiating features of the substyle, typical only of this one variety of the belles-lettres style. The various compositional forms of rhyme and rhythm are generally studied under the terms versification or prosody. 2/. EMOTIVE PROSE The language of the writer conforms or is expected to conform to the literary norms of the given period in the development of the English literary language. The language "of the hero of a novel, or of a story will in the main be chosen in order to characterize the man himself. A style of language that is made use of in prose I diluted by the general features of the belles-lettres style which subjects I to its own purposes. The third subdivision of the belles-lettres style is the language of plays. The first thing to be said about the parameters of this variety of belles-lettres is that, unlike poetry, which, except for bal­lads, in essence excludes direct speech and therefore dialogue, and unlike emotive prose, which is a combination of monologue (the author's speech) and dialogue (the speech of the characters), the language of plays is entirely dialogue. The author's speech is almost entirely excluded except for the playwright's remarks and stage directions, significant though they may be.
19.Publicistic style. The article. Essay. The publicistic stуle of language became discernible as a sepa­rate style in the middle of the 18th century. It also falls into three va­rieties, each having its own distinctive features. Unlike other styles, the publicistic style has a spoken variety, namely, the о r a tor i с a I sub-style. The development of radio and television has brought into being another new spoken variety, namely, the radio and TV с о т т е n-t a r y. The other two substyles are the essay (moral, philosophical, lit­erary) and journalistic articles (political, social, economic) in newspapers, journals and magazines. Book reviews in journals, newspapers and magazines and also pamphlets are generally included among essays. The general aim of publicistic style, which makes it stand out as a separate style, is to exert a constant and deep influence on public opin­ion. Naturally, of course, essays and speeches have greater individuality than newspaper or magazine articles where the individual element is generally toned down and limited by the requirements of the style, Further, publicistic style is characterized by brevity of expression. The essay is a literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social, aesthetic or literary subjects. An e s s а у is rather a series of personal and witty comments than a finished argument or a conclusive examination of any matter. This literary genre has definite linguistic traits which shape it as a variety of publicistic style. Irrespective of the character of the magazine and the divergence of subject matter—whether it is political, literary, popular-scientific or satirical, all the already mentioned features of publicistic style are to be found in any article. 22.37.THE STYLE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS The style of official documents, or "officialese", as it is sometimes called has already been pointed out, this FS is not homogeneous and is represented by the following substyles or variants: 1) the language of business documents; 2/ the language of legal documents; 3)that of diplomacy; 4) that of military documents. The aim of communication in this style of language is to reach agreement between two contracting parties. This most general function of the style of official documents predetermines the peculiarities of the style. In fact, each of the subdivisions of this style has its own peculiar terms, phrasesand expressions which differ from the corresponding terms, phrases and expressions of other variants of this style. Thus in finance we find terms like extra revenue, taxable capacities, liability to profit tax. Terms and phrases like high contracting parties, to ratify an agreement, memorandum, pact, Charge d'affaires, protectorate, extra-territorial status, plenipotentiary will immediately brand the utterance as diplomatic. In legal language, examples are: to deal with a case; summary procedure; a body of judges; as laid down in. Almost every official document has its own compositional design. Pacts and statutes, orders and minutes, notes and memoranda—all have more or less definite forms.	20.27.34.N e w s paper style.. Brief news item. The headline. Advertisements and announcements. The editorial was the last of all the styles of written literary English to be recognized as a specific form of writing standing apart from other forms.English newspaper writing dates from the 17th century. At the close of the 16th century short news pamphlets began to appear. The first of any regular series of English newspapers was the Weekly News which first appeared on May 23, 1622. and the Government, in its turn, set before the public a paper of its own—The London Gazette, first published on February 5, 1666. The paper was a semi-weekly and carried official information, royal decrees, news from abroad, and advertisements.The first English daily newspaper—the Daily Courant— was brought out on March 11, 1702. The paper carried news, largely foreign, and no comment, the latter being against the principles of the publisher, as was stated in the first issue of his paper. Information in the English newspaper is conveyed, in the first place, through the-medium of:1) brief news items,2) press reports (parliamentary, of court proceedings, etc.),3) articles purely informational in character,4) advertisements and announcements.To understand the language peculiarities of English newspaper style it will be sufficient to analyse the following basic newspaper fea­tures:1) brief news items,2) advertisements and announcements,3) the headline,4) the editorial…the principal function of a brief news item is to inform the reader. It states facts without giving explicit comments, and whatever evaluation there is in news paragraphs is for the most part implicit and as a rule unemotional. news­paper style has its specific vocabulary features and is characterized by an extensive use of:a) Special political and economic terms, e..b) Non-term political vocabulary, c) Newspaper cliches,. d) Abbreviations. \ e) Neologisms. The vocabulary of brief news items is for the most part devoid of emotional colouring. A dvertisements made their way into the British press at an early stage of its development, So they are almost as old as newspapers themselves. The principal function of a d v e r t i s em en ts and announcemen ts,, is to inform the reader. There are two basic types of advertisements and announcements in the modern English newspaper: classified and non-classified. In classified advertisements and announcements various kinds of information are arranged according to subject-matter into sections, each bearing an appropriate name such as BIRTHS, MARRIAGES, DEATHS, IN MEMORI-AM, BUSINESS OFFERS, PERSONAL, etc. This classified arrangement has resulted in a number of stereotyped patterns regularly employed in newspaper advertising. The headline (the title given to a news item or an article) is a dependent form of newspaper writing. It is in fact a part of a larger whole. The main function of the headline is to inform the reader briefly what the text that follows is about. headlines often contain elements of appraisal, i.e. they show the reporter's or the paper's attitude to the facts reported or commented on, thus also per­forming the function of instructing the reader. English headlines are short and catching, The function of the editorial is to influence the reader by giving an interpretation of certain facts. Editorials comment on the political and other events of the day. Their purpose is to give the editor's opinion and interpretation of the news published and suggest to the reader that it is the correct one. Like any evaluative writing, editorials appeal not only to the reader's mind but to his feelings as well. Hence the use of emotionally coloured language elements, both lexical and structural, Here are examples:In addition to vocabulary typical of brief news items, writers of edi­torials make an extensive use of emotionally coloured vocabulary. Along­side political words and expressions, terms, cliches and abbreviations one can find colloquial words and expressions, slang, and professionalisms	21.SCIENTIFIC PROSE STYLE The language of science is governed by the aim of the functional style of scientific prose, which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, develop­ment, relations between different phenomena, etc. The language means used, therefore, tend to be objective, precise, unemotional, devoid of any individuality; theree is a striving for the most generalized form of expression.The first and most noticeable feature of this style is the l о g i с a I sequence of utterances with clear indication of their interrelations and interdependenceA second and no less important feature, and perhaps the most con­spicuous, is the use of terms specific to each given branch of science. A third characteristic feature of scientific style is what we may call sentence-patterns. They are of three types:postulatary, argumentative and formulative. A fourth observable feature of the style of modern scientific prose, and one that strikes the eye of the reader, is the use of q ио t at ions and references. These sometimes occupy as much as half, a page.2 A fifth feature of scientific style, which makes-it distinguishable torn other styles, is the frequent use of f оо t - n о te s, not of the ref­erence kind, but digressive in character. This is in full accord with the main requirement of the style, which is logical coherence of ideas expressed. 23.Phonetic expressive means: Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc), by things (machines or tools, etc), by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet, etc) and by animals. There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect Onomatopoetic words can be used in a transferred meaning, as for instance, ding-dong, which represents the sound of bells rung continuously, may mean 1) noisy, 2) strenuously contested. Examples are: a ding-dong struggle, a ding-dong go at something. Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which to make sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometimes called "echo-writing". An example is ‘Silver bells... how they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle" and further. Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at im­parting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words: "Deep into the darkness peering, long 1 stood there wondering, fearing,. "Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before." Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines. we distinguish between full rhymes and incomplete rhymes. The full rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable, as in might, right; needless, heedless. Incomplet e rhymes present a greater variety. They can be divided into two main groups: vowel 'rhymes and consonant rhymes. In vowel rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different, as in flesh— fresh—press. Consonant rhymes, on the contrary, show concordance in consonants and disparity in vowels, as in worth—forth; tale—tool— Treble—trouble; flung—long. Rhythm exists in all spheres of human activity and assumes multifarious forms. It is a mighty weapon in stirring up emotions what­ever its nature or origin, whether it is musical,- mechanical, or symmetri­cal, as in architecture. The most general definition of rhythm may be expressed as follows:"Rhythm is a flow, movement, procedure, etc., characterized by basically regular recurrence of elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with opposite or different elements or features"
24.The graphic expressive means Basic notions of graphic expressive means are punctuation, orthogra­phy or spelling, text segmentation, and type. Punctuation is used in writing to show the stress, rhythm and tone of the spoken word. It also aims at clarifying the meaning of sentences. There are such common marks of punctuation: the full stop [. ], the comma [, ], the colon [: ], the semicolon [; ], brackets [()], dash [ - ], hyphen [ – ], the exclamation mark [! ], the oblique stroke [ / ], the iterrogative (question) mark [? ], inverted commas (quotation marks) [" "], suspension marks [...], the apostrophe [ ‘ ]. The full stop signals the end of a declarative sentence. It indicates a strong pause. It is used at the end of a complete sentence. it may be used as an instrument for dividing a text or a sentence into very small segments to underline the dynamic character of events or to create a stylistic device of parceling. The comma is used to show a slight pause in a sentence. It helps to clarify the sense of statements and to prevent ambiguity. It separates the items in lists: The box contained a book, some pencils, and a knife. The comma also separates two clauses when the first is not closely associated with the second: It introduces a pause where the eye might otherwise continue and mistake the sense of what is written:. It separates a sequence of adjectives which qualify a noun: However, when the adjectives are of a different order or type, no comma is necessary/ Brackets are used to insert a word or a phrase into a sentence. The words inserted between brackets are usually an explanation or an illustration. The rules of the usage of brackets are such: Round brackets are used to represent an aside or an extra piece of information which is closely related to the main subject of the sentence. Square brackets are used to indicate that something is being added by the author. This is usually for clarification or comment. The dash is used to indicate a sudden change of thought, an additional comment, or a dramatic qualification: That was the end of the matter - or so we thought. Dashes can also be used to insert a comment or a list of things: Everything - furniture, paintings, and books - survived the fire. The exclamation mark indicates surprise, gladness, irritation, despair, indignation, anger, alarm and other feelings and emotions: The interrogative mark is used to show that a question has been raised: Why is that woman staring at us? The hyphen is a short dash which connects words or parts of words. Hy­phens form derivatives and compounds: re-enter, co-operate, multi-story, son-in-law, president-elect. Suspension marks are typically used to signify emotional pauses of the speaker. They reflect such inner states of people as uncertainty, confusion or nervousness. They also create a stylistic device of aposiopesis. The semicolon is half way between a comma and a colon. It marks a pause which is longer than a comma, but not as long as a colon. Semicolons are used between clauses which could stand alone, but which are closely related and have some logical connection. They punctuate lists of things in continuous prose writing: The apostrophe is a raised comma. It is used to show possession (my mother's house, anybody's guess} and to punctuate contractions (There's nobody here. Where's Freddy? Don't fence me in).	25.38. Break-in-the-Narrative (Aposiopesis) Aposiopesis is a device which dictionaries define as "A stopping short for rhetorical effect." In the spoken variety of the language, a break in the narrative is usually caused by unwillingness to proceed; or by the supposition that what remains to be said can be understood by the implication embodied in what has been said; or by uncertainty as to what should be said. In the written variety, a break in the narrative is always a stylistic device used for some stylistic effect. Break-in-the-narrative has a strong degree of predictability, which is ensured by the structure of the sentence. As a stylistic device it is used in complex sentences, in particular in conditional sentences, the if -clause being given in full and the second part only implied. 26.Represented Speech There are three ways of reproducing actual speech: a) repetition of the exact utterance as it was spoken (direct speech), b) con­version of the exact utterance into the relater's mode of expression (in­direct s p*e e с h), arid c) representation of the actual utterance by a second person, usually the author, as if it had been spoken; whereas it has not really been spoken but is only represented in the author's words (represented speech).There is also a device which conveys to the reader the unuttered or inner speech of the character, thus presenting his thoughts and feelings. This device is also termed represented speech. To distinguish between the two varieties of represented speech we call the representation of the actual utterance through the author's language uttered represented speech, and the representation of the thoughts and feelings of the character—unuttered or inner represented speech.Uttered represented speech demands that the tense should be switched from present to past and that the personal pronouns should be changed from 1st and 2nd person to 3rd person as in indirect speech, but the syntactical structure of the utterance does not change. For example:"Could he bring a reference from where he now was? He could."The thoughts and feelings going on in one's mind and reflecting some previous experience are called inner speech.Inner represented speech, unlike uttered represented speech, ex­presses feelings and thoughts of the character which were not materialized in spoken or written language by the character. That is why it abounds in exclamatory words and phrases, elliptical constructions, breaks, and other means of conveying feelings and psychological states. When a person is alone with his thoughts and feelings, he can give vent to those strong emotions.which he usually keeps hidden. Rhetorical Questions The rhetorical questionIs a special syntactical stylistic j device the essence of which consists in reshaping the grammatical meaning of the interrogative sentence. In other words, the question is no" longer a question but a statement expressed in the form of an interroga­tive sentence. Thus there is an interplay of two structural meanings: 1) that of the question and 2) that of the statement (either affirmative or negative). Both are materialized simultaneously. For example:"Are these the remedies for a starving and desperate populace?" "Is there not blood enough upon your penal code, that jnore must be poured forth to ascend to Heaven and testify against you?" (Byron)	32.ORATORY AND SPEECHES The oratorical style of language is the oral subdivision of the publicistic style. Direct contact with the listeners permits a combination of the syntactical, lexical and phonetic peculiarities of both the written and spoken varieties of language. In its leading features, however, oratorical style belongs to the written variety of language, though it is modified by the oral form of the utterance and the use of gestures. Certain typical features of the spoken variety of speech present in this style are: direct address to the audience (ladies and gentlemen, honourable member(s), the use of the 2^nd person pronoun you, etc.), sometimes contractions (/'//, won't, haven't, isn't and others) and the use of colloquial words. This style is evident in speeches on political and social problems of the day, in orations and addresses on solemn occasions, as public weddings, funerals and jubilees, in sermons and debates and also in the speeches of counsel and judges in courts of law. Political speeches fall into two categories: parliamentary debates, and speeches at rallies, congresses, meetings and election campaigns. Byron's speech is rich in oratorical devices. All these devices are motivated, they are organically connected with the utterance. 33. ADVERTISEMENTS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS Advertisements made their way into the British press at an early stage of its development, i.e. in the mid-17^th century. So they are almost as old as newspapers themselves. The principal function of advertisements and announcements, like that of brief news, is to inform the reader. There are two basic types of advertisements and announcements in the modern English newspaper: classified and non-classified. In classified advertisements and announcements various kinds of information are arranged according to subject-matter into sections, each bearing an appropriate name. In The Times, for example, the reader never fails to find several hundred advertisements and announcements classified into groups, such as BIRTHS, MARRIAGES, DEATHS, IN MEMORI-AM, BUSINESS OFFERS, PERSONAL, etc. As for the non-classified advertisements and announcements, the variety of language form and subject-matter is so great that hardly any essential features common to all may be pointed out. The reader's attention is attracted by every possible means: typographical, graphical and stylistic, both lexical and syntactical.
35. Compositional Patterns of Rhythmical Arrangement English verse is mostly based on rhythmical arrangement and rhyme. The most observable and widely recognized compositional patterns of rhythm making up classical verse are based on: 1) alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables; 2) equilinearity, that is, an equal number of syllables in the lines; 3) a natural pause at the end of the line, the line being a more or less complete semantic unit; 4) identily of stanza pattern; 5) established patterns of rhyming. Hence classic English verse is called syllabo - tonic. There are a number of accepted deviations from established metrical schemes which we shall discuss in detail after pointing out the most recognizable English metrical patterns. There are five of them:1. Iambic metre,in which the unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed one.Itis graphically represented thus:(ᴗ-).2. Trochaic metre, where the order is reversed, i.e.. a stressed syllable is followed by one unstressed (-ᴗ).3. Dactylic metre — one stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed (-ᴗᴗ).4. Amphibrachic metre — one stressed syllable is framed by two unstressed (ᴗ-ᴗ).5. Anapaestic metre—two unstressed syllables are followed by one stressed (ᴗᴗ-).One unit is called a foot. The number of feet in a line varies, but it has its limit; it rarely exceeds eight. If the line consists of only one foot it is calle

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