As a matter of fact, the need to have the raw materials ready before translation starts has become obvious with the increasing use of various automata: if a translation aid system, translation memory system, automatic dictionary or translation engine is being used, it becomes imperative to set up all the terminology, phraseology, templates, and 'memory components' in advance. It must be emphasized that, whenever such materials are readily available, they may still need to be updated and validated. And this holds true of human translation too.
© Setting up the version for translation in the appropriate environment
Unless this is taken care of by the specific computer-assisted-translation tools or localisation tools, the translator may also need to:
- Set up a version for translation (or retranslation).
The version for translation or retranslation may be a version of the document containing only text (and excluding all tables, graphs, illustrations, etc.) or only subtitles or software menus. This version will also have undergone all the necessary formatting processes (i.e. tag freezing, style sheet consolidation, etc.) and will include all the relevant flags and any translation resources available. As a matter of fact, the version for translation is the material to be effectively translated or retranslated. This means it excludes anything not for translation but includes any segments or portions previously translated but not qualified.
- Set up the necessary environment.
The translator may also need to assemble and prepare specific equipment and software for the job, as well as any technical support element needed to carry out the translation.
© Transfer
Once the translator has checked the material and got it ready for translation, defined all the translation options, acquired the knowledge needed to get a perfect understanding of the material for translation, compiled and possibly integrated all the templates, terms, phrases and previously translated materials to be reused, and set up the workstation environment and any software required, there is good reason to think that optimal quality will be guaranteed during the actual transfer process which consists in creating 'new' material in such a way that it will meet all the target population's expectations as regards contents, form and language.
Transfer naturally means transfer of contents, formats, and form, with all necessary changes and adaptations required by linguistic, cultural, commercial, technical, moral, etc. differences between source and target.
It also goes without saying that the translation is self-checked by the transla-
© Proof-reading (or proof-listening in the case of oral translation) and revision
Once translated, the material has to be checked to make sure that everything that had to be translated has indeed been translated and complies with:
- language use and usage - meaning it is error-free, readable, clear, accessible, and unambiguous,
- the work provider's specifications and the translation options chosen,
- the principles of convergence between the source material and ultimate target material (in terms of meaning, aim and purpose), providing of course the target destinations and the target functions are identical to those of the original.
The proof-reading (or proof-listening) phase and the revision phase are generally kept separate. The proof-reader corrects anything that is blatantly incorrect and flags any anomalies without interfering with the translation itself, while the reviser will correct and improve the translation. If the translated material is particularly sensitive or critical, the translation may in fact need to be quality- checked and revised many times in succession. In the absolute, if 'zero defect quality' is required, it may take up to four or five close revisions to weed out all imperfections - at a cost which explains why 'zero defect quality' in translation remains something of an economically unreasonable objective.
Batch translations (where the same document is shared out between several translators) require specific checking and revision procedures, to ensure complete harmonisation as regards style, terminology, phraseology and discursive organisation.
© Corrections and adaptations, plus finalisation
Ideally, corrections should normally be carried out by none other than the translator, who is ultimately responsible for the quality of the end-product. But this is not always practicable and, besides, revisers and even, in some cases, the work providers themselves may introduce changes without bothering to inform the translator, who usually strongly resents such lack of consideration, especially when, as often happens in bilingual environments, an ill-advised work provider with poor competence decides to straighten things out his own way.
Adaptations are designed to make sure the translation complies with specific constraints (such as regulatory requirements for instance) or fulfils a different purpose and reaches a different target audience (as when a promotional brochure is derived from the translation of purely technical data) or is suitable for a different medium or a new format. Adapting the material to constraints, purposes, targets, media and formats is in fact tantamount to providing an additional service and deserves extra financial consideration.
Translations may also undergo 'finalisation', which may mean anything from updating the translated material (changes may have been introduced since the translation ended) to introducing administrative components (safety warnings, phone number, copyright notices, etc.)
(To) Validation or 'qualification'
The finished translation is generally validated or qualified for use, in particular if:
- the document or the material translated is used as a tool or instrument (as is the case with operating instructions and user guides, which can easily be tested in situ, or with 'localised' software applications which must necessarily be tested and quality-controlled before being launched on the market). The translation is then said to be qualified.
- the work provider knows that the translated document is of critical importance, either because the company's or organisation's international brand image is at stake or because considerable financial or technical risk is involved.
(T) Formatting, integration or implementation
Once the translation has been completed, checked, amended and validated, the translator may need to re-assemble or rebuild a document. This may mean getting the manuscript ready for print or dissemination: reincorporating graphics, images, screen captures, image arrays, etc. either into the paper version or the electronic files.
Once this first-stage integration is effective, it may so happen that the translator has to transfer the translated material - together with its support if the case so happens - to the medium used for dissemination. This may mean printing the document or burning a CD-ROM or returning translated (localised) files to a Web site.
In most cases, though, the formatting, integration and publishing process will of course be carried out by experts in those fields rather than by the translator. This is usually the case in translation companies, which employ in-house specialists. It is also the case if the work provider has its own document production and printing and/or publishing division, webmaster, or post-production department, to mention just a few possibilities. However, where the work provider does not have the necessary resources, more and more translators are now including this type of extras in the overall service they provide... and often forgetting to claim the extra money they should be getting.
() Delivery
Delivery of the translated material does not necessarily mean the end of the translator's work.
As a matter of fact, the translator must take great care to file the translation and translation memory, to consolidate and update resources, and finally to analyse the project and its outcome with a view to:
- making sure anything that might be reused will be readily available and 'certified';
- eliminating the sources of any defects or problems and improving the processes.
See also: Chapter 3 'The translation process from A to Z' Note
Though the techniques and types of materials concerned are specific, the flowchart is basically the same for subtitling/overtitling, dubbing, and localisation (of software, Web sites and video games). It is just that some of the stages are rather more complex.
8. A breakdown of tasks
The process of producing translated material from an original material is, as the above diagram shows, a sequence of tasks and operations, some of which may sometimes lead to new job definitions.
8.i Pre-translation
Pre-translation includes all the groundwork leading up to the translation itself; i.e. understanding the source document, finding all the relevant information as well as the terminology and phraseology and translation memories needed to carry out the translation, and making the source material ready for translation.
Applicable tasks vary according to whether the translation will be carried out by a translation engine or by a human translator, and according to applicable work organisation patterns.
In a broad sense, pre-translation includes all of the commercial negotiations and technical operations prior to receiving the material for translation. In a more restricted sense, it starts once the material that has to be translated has become available.
In all cases, pre-translation includes:
- receiving the material for translation; duplicating and saving it as need be;
- receiving and checking the translation kit;
- upgrading the material if need be;
- compiling or receiving the terminology and phraseology (and translation memories) that the translators will or must use, and integrating these resources into the source material or the translation memory, as the case maybe;
- checking that the material to be translated is actually 'ready and fit for translation' and making any necessary corrections and amendments;
- looking for specific documentation relevant to the translation and forwarding this to the translator(s);
- dispatching the material to the relevant translators according to their specialist expertise and special skills.
If an automatic translation system (translation engine) is being used, pre- translation means making the material 'machine-ready', through:
- converting the source material to a format that the translation system is able to read (by digitisation or format conversion, etc.),
- identifying likely sources of ambiguity for the system - unless the translation engine has the capacity to automatically list all ambiguous items;
- identifying all likely obstacles to translation - unless the system automatically lists all the items it cannot translate as a matter of course;
- identifying all the language elements the system will likely not recognise - unless the system has an automatic recognition function,
- feeding into the system all the resources it needs to carry out the translation (e.g. creating or updating dictionaries, integrating terminology and phraseology, clarifying meaning),
- rationalising the material by deleting all the items that are likely to cause problems for the system because it won't recognise them or be able to interpret them.
If need be, it is also the pre-translator's job to disassemble the material for translation and separate its contents into coherent batches [separate text from menus and graphics; create a file made up of all messages, etc.]
Pre-translation is something translators do as a matter of course except where (or when) it makes sense to have one operator specifically perform those tasks. That operator is then called a 'pre-translator'. Pre-translators work mostly in companies that translate or subcontract huge volumes in many languages. Pre- translation is an efficient way of ensuring homogeneity and, of course, providing the translators with material that allows them to 'just translate', thus increasing their productivity and reducing time to market.
8.2 Information retrieval and management
Information retrieval and management is an important component task of the translation process. The information search and management that a translator (and a translation company) carries out includes all the information search and management tasks that any information manager carries out except that (1) the search is focused on the translation job in hand and (2) informers not documents (besides the readily available Web resources) are the highest priority, simply because, once again, time to market is always extremely short.
All translators have to find and manage all the information and documentation they need, except when and where it makes sense to have one operator specialise in that particular task for reasons of efficiency. In such cases, the information and documentation manager (very often the company 'librarian' or terminologist with extended expertise in information retrieval and documentary searches) works from the list of points that translators want clarified. He identifies the relevant resource centres, finds the relevant documents, databases, Web sites or informers, compiles the data and forwards it to the translators.
8.3 Terminography
Terminography (terminology mining and management) is an essential component task of the translation process. In fact, if the terminology is not available, the translation will not be adequate. Besides, terminology is a highly sensitive substance since it is the sign of knowledgeability and technical competence and even the slightest error may have quite impressive consequences.
In translation service provision, the terminographic part of the job means:
- identifying the critical terminology in the source material,
- identifying the relevant terminology sources - beyond the Web corpora that any translator may readily access,
- finding the resources and, more particularly, the informers that are likely to be able to shed light on the terminological problems in the source material,
- getting hold of the required terminology,
- validating the terminology (or having it validated),
- forwarding the terminology to the translator(s) or injecting it into the material to be translated.
Terminology mining is something all translators do as a matter of course, except where and when it makes sense to have one operator specialise in that particularly sensitive domain. Having a full-time terminographer is a good idea when there is need to harmonise the terminology used by various translators working on the same project and also, naturally, when a significant part of the translating is done using computer assisted translation tools or a translation engine. The latter cannot work unless they are fed the required terminology.
8.4 Phraseography
Phraseography (phraseology mining and management) is becoming an important component task of the translation process. In fact, it is now becoming quite clear that customers and translation users want phraseological conformity (meaning the translator uses the collocations, set phrases, sentence patterns and paragraph organisations which are particular to the domain area or the type of document concerned or used only by a particular professional group).
In translation service provision, the phraseographic part of the job means:
- identifying the critical terminology in the source material,
- identifying the relevant phraseology sources - beyond the Web corpora that any translator may readily access,
- finding the resources and, more particularly, the informers that are likely to be able to shed light on the phraseological problems in the source material,
- getting hold of the required phraseology,
- validating the phraseology (or having it validated),
- forwarding the phraseology to the translator(s) or injecting it into the material to be translated.
8.5 Transfer (so-called 'translation')
The transfer task is, of course, central to the translating process and it is what all 'translators' carry out.
Transfer normally means transferring contents and meaning into a different culture, a different code (linguistic or other), a different communicative setup, for an audience or users who are different, though homologous, making all necessary adaptations to that effect and purpose.
Transfer normally includes self-checks and controls by the translator himself.
8.6 Quality controls (part of quality assurance)
Quality controls are part of quality assurance. They follow the transfer phase and are deemed to be part and parcel of the translation phase since they are normally 'inescapable' and required by all emerging standards (notably EN15038).
Quality controls are carried out in proof-reading or in revision mode (human- made translations) or in post-editing mode (machine made translations).
Note: to many people, quality controls are strictly equated with "post translation".
8.6.1 Proof-reading
In the strictest sense, proof-reading consists in correcting any kind of blatant defects (spelling or grammar mistakes, missing bits, faulty formatting) and pointing out any apparent defects, discrepancies or translation errors, leaving it to the translator or any other authorised person to make whatever corrections might actually be justified in that respect.
Note: today, proof-reading may involve listening to the recorded translation or to the voice-synthesized version of the translated material and dictating the appropriate comments and suggestions while correcting the blatant errors.
8.6.2 Revision
In the strictest sense, revision includes all operations undertaken to guarantee that the translation meets all applicable quality criteria and quality levels (i.e. is free of linguistic, technical or translation errors). This means making all necessary corrections and changes (improvements, amendments, substitutions, reorganisations). Revision is an upgrading operation that makes the translated material compliant with all applicable requirements and, of course, with the rules of the art.
It is worth noting that practising translators usually consider that 'mutual revision' (i.e. translators revising each other's work) is highly desirable whenever possible, and that several levels of proof-reading and revision are absolutely essential when it comes to total quality.
Note: with the development of voice technologies, revision is now more and more frequently dictated, with the translator making the requested or required corrections and changes.
All translators are normally expected to quality control their translations. They do so in revision mode, as they will of course make all necessary changes and amendments.
When the quality requirements are particularly stringent all quality checks and controls are in the care of dedicated specialised personnel.
8.6.3 Post-editing
Post-editing means checking, proof-reading and revising translations carried out by any kind of translating automaton. It is becoming a job in its own right because automatic translation is coming back in force and, some would say, with a vengeance: post-editing of automatic or machine translation is systematic unless the client is prepared to put up with a 'rough idea' of the source text content as supplied by the raw machine translation - which is no longer a rare occurrence. It means both (a) introducing any changes needed to render the translated text either just readable or deliverable - depending on the quality required by the client -, and (b) amending the alignment tables or algorithms so that errors do not happen again - or suggesting amendments.
Despite its generally unglamorous reputation, post-editing can be an interesting and fulfilling job, especially when it involves both translation and information technology skills in the development of more efficient machine translation systems. To many translators, post-editing is a very attractive proposition.
8.7 Post-translation
Note: to many people, "post translation" is synonymous with quality controls.
Post-translation includes all the tasks that are carried out after the material has been translated and its quality checked.
Applicable tasks vary according to the medium but usually include:
- editing [page layout, illustrations, formatting, screen captures, message integration, code reassembly],
Editing is normally done by an editor.
- installing the translated material on the support medium in the required format,
- testing and finalising the 'end product'
- installing the end product on its broadcast medium (Web site, DVD, CD, FTP server, etc.)
Post-translation tasks are sometimes all carried out by the translator himself, but can be split up between any number of operators.
On-line QA
On-line quality assessment (or online quality assurance) is a full test to make sure that the translated version of a videogame or a software package or a 'cloned' Web site is fully operational. This quality control function is vital in localisation companies where it is essential that translated software, or videogames, for instance actually perform as they should.
chapter 2
Categories of translation
Introduction
The basic dividing line along which categories of translations are established runs between general translation and specialised translation.
i. General translation
General translation refers to the translation of documents and materials that do not belong to any specific type or domain area, do not belong to any particular type, do not entail a specific translation process or the use of equipment beyond an ordinary computer and word processor. It therefore covers a relatively wide range ofmaterials such as letters, biographies, monographs, treatises, recipe books, tourist brochures, tourist guides, press articles (in newspapers or magazines), post card legends, company presentations, user guides, etc. In fact, general translation is all that remains after all specialisation areas have been listed.
Generalist translators translate documents and materials which cannot be labelled as belonging to a particular type and do not normally require a high degree of specialist or technical knowledge. The generalist translator usually touches on "all kinds of subject areas", has a "whole range of clients" and rarely deals with large-scale translation projects. Generalist translators will usually tackle any source material ranging from general non-fiction works for publication (but not literature, which is a specialism in itself) to more or less technical documents. They may occasionally venture into one of the more highly specialised areas of translation, but will generally refrain from taking on the most highly technical or specialised types of material if given the choice. When they do, it is usually a 'one- off', because they cannot afford to turn down a request from a regular client, and this may lead them to overreach their knowledge and skills at that particular point in time. Generalist translators are, by definition, 'all-rounders' who have to be able to juggle with a 30-page document on metal sanding machines, a sales contract for second-hand trucks and a user guide for a floor laying machine, not forgetting that urgent four-page fax describing a new liquid pig feed manufacturing system. When first starting out, the generalist translator usually has to try to make his mark in a number of very different translation markets, taking on contracts for rather small documents but for a large number of clients who rarely supply more than 100 pages a year each. His 'catchment area' is generally local or, at best, regional, and his workload will depend very much on local reputation, snowballing quickly by word of mouth if the original clients are happy with the work supplied. The natural trend for most generalist translators is to specialise as much as possible and as soon as possible. This happens for a number of reasons. Regular clients soon require more specialised translations and supply ever larger volumes in one or two particular specialist areas. This means the translator gradually and quietly acquires the knowledge, skills (and confidence) that lead to specialisation. At the same time, he also realises that it is far easier and more profitable to target specific markets and clients than to spend time and money advertising services on a wider basis. It is indeed more cost-effective to concentrate on certain types of contracts (the more technical, repetitive and sizeable ones). In the course of the move towards greater specialisation, the translator will, for some time, carry on dealing with all kinds of source materials while moving towards greater specialisation in one or two particular areas. He may also become a duly recognised 'sworn' translator, if only because this adds value when addressing clients or prospective clients.
2. Specialised translation
Specialised translation can be defined as the translation of materials which:
(1) refer to a highly specialised field or domain (e.g. law, finance, computer science, telecommunications, etc.)
(2) and/or are of a particular type,
(3) and/or are targeted at a particular audience or public through specific dissemination channels and/or are used by specialists in specific circumstances,
(4) and/or are embedded in a particular medium (e.g. multimedia technology, film, video, ICT, etc.) therefore calling for the use of special procedures, tools and protocols and leading to the emergence of new specialisms or even jobs.
2.i Translation of specialised material
The most widely-known sub-categories of translation are those of materials with
specialised subject matter - often to the point that the medium too is specialised.
Sub-categories are a matter of volume since a sub-category emerges whenever a
significant number of translators are concerned. Traditional sub-categorizing is
as follows:
- technical translation,
- commercial translation (sometimes recognized by the official qualification of 'commercial translator'),
- financial translation,
- legal translation,
- biomedical and pharmaceutical translation,
- scientific translation,
- IT translation,
- marketing and advertising translation,
- translation of X documents (where X refers to the denomination of a given domain).
2.1.1 Literary translation
Literary translation is the translation of any kind of fictional work, including prose narratives, drama and poetry. The last two types (drama and poetry) involve particular constraints related, for instance, to theatrical performance or poetic style. Further specialisation may occur if the translator chooses to focus on one author, period, style, country or region, or if she/he specialises in children's books, crime novels, science fiction or comic strips, with the specific features related to the combined use of text and graphics.
In most countries, literary translation is viewed as a form of authorship. The translator may be a "secondary author" vis-a-vis the original author of the translated work, but is often considered in the eyes of the law as an author in her/his own right.
Literary translation often requires particular talents on the part of the translator in terms of style, sensitivity, creativeness and aesthetic feeling. In the most talented, they border on creative genius and are generally considered a natural gift rather than an acquired skill.
To dispel a few common illusions, literary translation is anything but 'free'. It is in fact quite 'controlled', with the publisher, the manager of the collection, the proof-reader, and the commercial staff all having strong opinions about what the translation should look like in terms of length (yes, translations of literature may be cut or expanded), contents, and style. In that respect, with the exception of the 'monuments', literary works are first and foremost commercial products.
Literary translation is the preserve of full-time professionals (deriving most of their income from literary translation) and enlightened amateurs. Their professional profiles differ widely and include:
- authors in their own right (novelists, poets or playwrights),
- well known literary translators, generally overworked and in great demand among publishers,
- budding literary translators, bent on building up a reputation, who are encouraged by the fact that literary works are now increasingly marketable commodities and by the general acceptance of translations by the reading public and critics alike,
- 'pulp fiction' translators, often faced with cut-throat competition in their particular market segment,
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