Germany (1848-1871)
As in many other regions of Europe, the German states had experienced liberal uprisings after 1815. The word "revolution" was not appropriate in the German context because there was never an attempt by an important section of the German people to overthrow the ruling regimes in the numerous German states. There had been student demonstrations after 1830 and popular demonstrations in Berlin and other German cities.
In 1848 liberal uprisings took place in many German cities, including Berlin the capital city of Prussia. Although he considered himself to be appointed by God, the King of Prussia, Frederick William IV sympathised with many liberal demands. In order to stop the violence a promised to grant a constitution and create an elected assembly. The assembly duly met, and in 1849, it voted in favour of a liberal constitution for the kingdom. Only two members voted against it. One of them was a Prussian country land owner, or Junker, Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck had no time for liberals, with their long-winded speeches a out freedom of the people. He believed that the king should rule and the people should obey. Much later he made the famous " blood and iron " speech to another Prussian assembly. This speech has gone down in history as representing the attitude of the Prussian state in its search for power through war.
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In 1849 many German states offered the crown of a united Germany to Frederick William of Prussia. He refused it, declaring that "I cannot pick up a crown from the gutter". Bismarck was relieved because he had feared that Prussia might become part of a flabby, liberal united Germany. He was not against the unification of the German states, but if and when it occurred, it would have to be on terms imposed by Prussia and under its control.
The great German power in Europe had always been Austria. This was still true in 1848, but Bismarck was determined that Prussia would take Austria's place. Throughout the decade of the 1850's he dedicated himself to raising the prestige of Prussia in the eyes of the other German states at the expense of Austria. At the same time he encouraged their economic links with Prussia through the Zollverein.
In 1861, the new king of Prussia, William 1, appointed Bismarck as his chief minister. Now Bismarck's way was clear to achieve his aims. The first opportunity arose in 1864 when both Prussia and Austria intervened to stop the king of Denmark incorporating the German states of Schleswig and Holstein into his kingdom. Denmark was rapidly defeated and it was decided that these two provinces would be jointly administered by Prussia and Austria. Bismarck made certain that this arrangement was so complicated that arguments were bound to occur between the two states. He was deliberately trying to provoke a war with Austria.
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In 1866 he succeeded when an exasperated Austria declared war on Prussia. (He was very careful to make sure that it was Austria that declared war so that nobody could blame Prussia for starting it). To the surprise of all European nations, the Austrian armies were rapidly defeated in the " Seven Weeks' War ". Prussia emerged as the great Germanic power in Europe. As a result, many states of northern Germany Joined Prussia to form the North German Confederation which Prussia totally dominated.
Not content with this achievement, Bismarck's next ambition was to make Prussia the great power of all continental Europe. In order to achieve this it would be necessary to defeat France. The chance came in 1870, when Prussia and France became involved in a complicated diplomatic argument over the succession to the throne of Spain. The Spanish government offered the crown to a Hohenzollern (Prussian) prince. The government of Louis Napoleon objected strongly and even began to make war-like threats. Although Emperor Napoleon III himself did not want to press the issue, he was pushed into a threatening attitude by the "war party", formed from most of his ministers. Even his wife, the Empress Eugenie, as well as the press and public opinion, were advocating war.
On top of this, the French ambassador to Prussia had a meeting with King William I and a report of this meeting was sent by telegram to Bismarck. This was the famous Ems Telegramme, which Bismarck re-wrote in such a way that it would offend both Prussians and French if it was made public. He sent it to the newspapers and waited for the inevitable reaction.
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On 19th July 1870 France declared war on Prussia. On 2nd September France surrendered. Bismark had triumphed. Not only had he established Prussia as the great continental power but, on the 18th January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, King William I of Prussia was proclaimed by all the states of Germany to be their emperor. Germany was now a united country and the Second Reich had been created
The unification of Italy had started by nationalism and also brought and won together with nationalism. Italy was broken into many states from the congress of Vienna in 1815. At the beginning of 1815 and through 1848 the Italian people were begining to feel restless the wanted to live no more under the foreign rulers. In the discontent of all of the Italian people and the ages of restlesness there was two very intelligent and ideal leaders that appeared before the Italian people it wasGiuseppe Mazzini, Camillo di Cavour, andGiuseppe Garibald
The Germany Unification. This unification will obviously will recieve the same gratification as Italy, achieving national unity in the middle of 1800's. There was the two larger states which was the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Prussia, these dominated the rest. Nationalism unified Prussia as while other races tore at Austro-Hungary. Also Prussia's was the most powerful at that time. Berlin rioters really scared the Prussian king. Wilhelm I in 1861 tried to double the Prussian army. This however the parliment threw it out by not giving him the money to do this. Wilhelm had chosen a republican Junker named Otto von Bismarck. Bismark soon was a master of realpolitik. Bismark soon made a big mistake he acted without the parliments consent and declared he would rule and with no extraction of legal budget. Germany soon expands and Bismark takes Austria out of the picture. The Franco-Prussian war started around 1867 involving France and Prussia food was so scarce people began eating sawdust, leather, and rats. The war ended and King Wilhelm I of Prussia was crowned Kaiser
Italy (1859-1870)
Between 1820 and 1849, thousands of Italians had died trying to liberate their country from foreign control or to unite the separate states. All these attempts had failed. Heroism was not enough. During the decade of the 1850's other, and much more a effective methods were tried by Count Cavour a chief minister of Piedmont-Sardinia. This was the only Italian kingdom with a native Italian ruler. Cavour cleverly managed to persuade Emperor Napoleon III of France to intervene. With French aid, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia expanded to include most of northern Italy.
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Cavour had paved the way for the creation of a united Italy. However, in the decade of the 1860's, his place was taken by one of the truly heroic figures of history, Giuseppe Garibaldi. Garibaldi, was born in Nice, which only became French in 1859.
In 1848 he had organised groups of Italian partisans to fight the Austrians and, in 1859, he did so again. In May 1859, he landed in Sicily with 1000 red-shined volunteers. The exploits of Garibaldi and his "Thousand" were reported in newspapers and spread throughout Europe. Against incredible odds he defeated every army sent against him. In every region of southern Italy that he occupied he declared himself to represent the authority of King Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont-Sardinia.
The battles Magenta and Solferino in 1859 were French victories over the Austrians. These battles were won at such a cost that not only did Napoleon III make peace with Austria, but also the first battle gave its name to a shade of red. The second battle led to the foundation of the Red Cross by a Swiss, Henri Dunant. In honour of Dunant, the Swiss Confederation adopted the flag of the Red Cross as its national flag (with the colours reversed). The Geneva Convention of 1863, concerning the ways to conduct "civilised warfare" was another consequence.
By March 1861 so much of the Italian peninsula had declared its loyalty to Victor Emmanuel, that the " Kingdom of Italy " was proclaimed, even though Rome, the natural and obvious capital for all Italian patriots, was still under the control of the Pope. Finally, in 1870, an Italian army entered Rome and the Pope relinquished his authority over the city in exchange for the Vatican, which became an independent state. Italy was a united country at last.
Similarities
- common culture and language
- many different states, some under foreign rule
- one leading nation that promotes unification (Kingdom of Sardinia in Italy, Kingdom of Prussia in Germany)
- oddily, this leading nations are both off the main cultural centres
- secret societies that promote unification
- succesful wars against foreign powers (Sardinia vs Austria, Prussia vs France and Austria)
Differencies
- in Italy, creation of a unitary state; in Germany, all the states are left in existence, keeping some sovereignity, but accept the king of Prussia as emperor - unitary state only in 1918
- Italian unification supported by France (in part) and Great Britain; German unification adversed by France and Great Britain
German Unification
The events leading up to the establishment of the German Empire in 1871. In 1815, at the end of the Napoleonic wars, the Congress of Vienna (1814–15) created a German confederation of 39 states in the geographical area known as Germany (formerly a region divided into hundreds of German states). Its organization gave Austria and Prussia, the largest German states, joint influence over the affairs of the confederation, although Austria was its nominal leader. The movement towards German unification was slow until the 1850s. The idea was popular with German nationalists and liberals, but opposed by their state governments. However, in the 1860s unification was taken up by an increasingly powerful Prussia and its chancellor, Otto von Bismarck. By 1871 only two German states existed – Austria and Germany; the states of Germany had been effectively taken over by Prussia, and were now united under the German Empire.
http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyc...
Compare and contrast the Italian and German unifications.
By 1871, Europe was remapped with the rise of two newly united nations - the Kingdom of Italy and the German Empire. The unification movements of both countries took place at roughly the same time in the mid-19th century and were motivated by the same historical trends - that of liberalism and nationalism. The following discussion presents a comparison of the two unifications.
Pre-1815 Before the French Revolution and Napoleon Bonaparte, both Italy and Germany shared some similar features. Italy was divided into a number of separate states which were ruled by despotic kings. Yet the Italians shared a common language and a common history - the Roman Empire. Many still had memories of the ancient unity and glory.
Germany was actually more divided than Italy. She had more than three hundred petty independent states, and they had no form of common government. Nonetheless, the Germans bad a common language and shared some memories of unity in medieval times.
Both the French Revolution and Napoleon affected the two countries. Italy was particularly influenced by the career of Napoleon who first rose to fame with his Italian campaign (1796). At first, Napoleon and his invading armies were treated by Italians as liberators who taught them liberalism and nationalism. In fact, Napoleon instituted some reforms in Italy and even created a united Kingdom of Italy. These reinforced the impact of liberalism and nationalism. However, when Napoleon became more and more a dictator, he was opposed by Italians who rose into rebellion against Napoleonic dominance.
As for Germany, the French Revolution and Napoleon gave the first impetus to nationalist and liberal forces; On the one hand, Napoleon reduced the number of German states from over three hundred to thirty nine and grouped them into a Confederation of the Rhine. On the other hand, both Austria and Prussia, major German states, were soundly defeated by Napoleon in- several battles. Their harsh treatment nursed strong patriotic feeling among the Germans. In particular, Prussia modernised her army and government in order to fight back Napoleon. This was successfully carried out in the Battle of Leipzig (1813) when Prussia led other German states to defeat Napoleon.
In short, liberal and nationalist sentiments in Italy and Germany were much aroused by the French Revolution and Napoleon.
Congress of Vienna When Napoleon was defeated and exiled, representatives of the European countries met at the Congress of Vienna to settle European affairs. They again divided the Italian peninsula into petty states with restored legitimate rulers. Italy was described to be merely a geographical expression and there was not even a loose confederation of states, to give a sense of political unity. Worse still, Austria, a foreign country, exerted strong influence over all Italian states except Piedmont-Sardinia.
In Germany, absolute governments were restored in all the states by the Congress of Vienna. Unlike Italy, a loose German Confederation of the thirty-nine states was created to preserve a vague sense of German unity. However, the Confederation and its Diet were powerless and by no means resembled a central government. Austria, holding the presidency of the Diet, was very influential in German affairs.
Such turning the clock back greatly frustrated Italian and German liberals and patriots. Discontented, they sought various means to seek liberty and unity. Thus, in the following decades, revolts broke oat periodically until it culminated into great revolutions by 1848.
Leadership In post-1815 Italy, most Italian states, such as the Kingdom of Sardinia, the central Duchies and the Papal States, were strongly influenced by Austria. As a multi-racial empire. and occupying the Italian. provinces of Lombardy and Venetia, Austria had no wish to see Italy unified. Mettemich tried to suppress whatever liberal and nationalist aspirations that surfaced in Italy, and he Was successful until 1848. hi the meantime, three schools of thought emerged on how to achieve Italian unification. As events unfolded, the monarchist idea that championed the leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia became the main stream. That country alone had the will and strength to lead in the Italian unification movement. She became the rallying point of Italian nationalists.
In Germany, as in Italy, Austria- was the main obstacle to unification. Nonetheless, inside the Confederation, Austria had to face the rivalry of another powerful German state - Prussia. Both contended after 1815 for leadership of the Confederation; For several decades, at least until 1850 when Prussia was humiliated by Austria in the Treaty of Olmutz, Austrian leadership was undisputable. Yet, Austria sought only to lead, but not to unify the states. As nationalism gathered momentum, more and more Germans lost hope in Austria and turned to Prussia for leadership in the unification movement
The Congress of Vienna was convened in 1815 by the four European powers which had defeated Napoleon. The first goal was to establish a new balance of power in Europe which would prevent imperialism within Europe, such as the Napoleonic empire, and maintain the peace between the great powers. The second goal was to prevent political revolutions, such as the French Revolution, and maintain the status quo.
Disagreement between Russia and Prussia on the one hand and Britain and Austria on the other about boundary provisions in Eastern Europe led to a threat of renewed hostilities. The new French government, under the restored Bourbon dynasty in the person of King Louis XVIII, was enlisted as an ally by the British. France was invited to send a representative to the Congress of Vienna and was, thereafter, involved as the fifth great power of the Grand Alliance.
Agreement was reached avoiding war.
Prussian boundaries were expanded westward to confront the French with a greater power on their eastern border.
The Kingdom of the Netherlands, which included both Holland and Belgium, was created for the same reason. When that arrangement collapsed and an independent Belgium was recognized, the great powers accomplished their objectives by signing a treaty among themselves in 1837, which guaranteed the neutrality of Belgium and Holland. This treaty remained in
effect until 1914.
There was not another European-wide war for a century. When Germany marched into Belgium in 1914, thus violating the neutrality of the Lowlands, the First World War began. There were, however, other conflicts in the nineteenth century, such as the Crimean War, the Franco-Austrian War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War. But these were limited by both time and geography, and did not involve all of the great powers.
The second goal, to restore "legitimate" or traditional governments to power and to prevent political revolutions, or to maintain the status quo met with partial success in the short term, but was bound to fail in the long term because it opposed the irresistable forces of historical change resulting from modernization. Those irresistable forces took the form of the dual revolutions of liberalism and nationalism.
Napoleon Bonaparte was born on 15 August 1769 in Corsica into a gentry family. Educated at military school, he was rapidly promoted and in 1796, was made commander of the French army in Italy, where he forced Austria and its allies to make peace. In 1798, Napoleon conquered Ottoman-ruled Egypt in an attempt to strike at British trade routes with India. He was stranded when his fleet was destroyed by the British at the Battle of the Nile.
France now faced a new coalition - Austria and Russia had allied with Britain. Napoleon returned to Paris where the government was in crisis. In a coup d'etat in November 1799, Napoleon became first consul. In 1802, he was made consul for life and two years later, emperor. He oversaw the centralisation of government, the creation of the Bank of France, the reinstatement of Roman Catholicism as the state religion and law reform with the Code Napoleon.
In 1800, he defeated the Austrians at Marengo. He then negotiated a general European peace which established French power on the continent. In 1803, Britain resumed war with France, later joined by Russia and Austria. Britain inflicted a naval defeat on the French at Trafalgar (1805) so Napoleon abandoned plans to invade England and turned on the Austro-Russian forces, defeating them at Austerlitz later the same year. He gained much new territory, including annexation of Prussian lands which ostensibly gave him control of Europe. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved, Holland and Westphalia created, and over the next five years, Napoleon's relatives and loyalists were installed as leaders (in Holland, Westphalia, Italy, Naples, Spain and Sweden).
In 1810, he had his childless marriage to Josephine de Beauharnais annulled and married the daughter of the Austrian emperor in the hope of having an heir. A son, Napoleon, was born a year later.
The Peninsular War began in 1808. Costly French defeats over the next five years drained French military resources. Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 resulted in a disastrous retreat. The tide started to turn in favour of the allies and in March 1814, Paris fell. Napoleon went into exile on the Mediterranean island of Elba. In March 1815 he escaped and marched on the French capital. The Battle of Waterloo ended his brief second reign. The British imprisoned him on the remote Atlantic island of St Helena, where he died on 5 May 1821
§ В то время в Европе было шесть больших государств с самостоятельной политикой: Франция, Англия, Пруссия, Австрия, Турция и Россия. Наполеон сначала разбил Австрию в Италии, затем помирился со всеми и несколько лет наводил порядок во Франции. В 1804-05 гг. Наполеон готовился устроить Англии, которая пряталась за Ла-Маншем, каловдутие, но англичанка со страху подкупила Австрию и Россию на новую войну. Наполеон разбил австрийскую и русскую армию, принудив Австрию к миру и упразднив Священную Римскую империю, императором которой, собственно, и был австрийский монарх. Через некоторое время против империи выступила Пруссия, но потерпев эпик фейл, слилась практически без сопротивления. За пруссаков снова вступилась Россия, но и её армия была вскоре разбита, а русский царь Александр был принуждён к миру и союзу, Пруссию уже даже за государство не считали. Далее Наполеон решил захватить Испанию и посадить там царствовать своего брата Жозефа. Но в Испании к этому почему-то отнеслись без понимания и в стране разгорелась партизанская война, которая не стихала до конца правления Наполеона. Воспользовавшись проблемами Наполеона в Испании, Австрия опять объявила войну Франции, но через некоторое время эпично слилась при Ваграме и в третий раз была принуждена к миру. После этого и до войны 1812 года Наполеон фактически был в Европе тем, чем на 1941-й год был для Европы Гитлер.
§ В 1804 г. у англичан был крутой адмирал Нельсон, такой же популярный, как, скажем, маршал Жуков у нас. Наполеон обдурил его, сбегая из Египта, а через пять лет адмирал-таки получил долгожданную французскую пулю при Трафальгаре, за что Наполеон расплатился всем флотом.
§ Наполео́н I Бонапа́рт (итал. Napoleone Buonaparte, фр. Napoléon Bonaparte [na.po.leɔ̃ bɔ.nɑ.paʁt]; 15 августа 1769, Аяччо,Корсика — 5 мая 1821, Лонгвуд, остров Святой Елены) — император французов в 1804—1815 годах, великий полководец и государственный деятель, заложивший основы современного французского государства.
§ Наполеоне Буонапарте (так его имя произносилось на Корсике) свою профессиональную военную службу начал в 1785 году в чине младшего лейтенанта артиллерии; выдвинулся в период Великой французской революции, достигнув чина бригадного генерала (после взятия Тулона 18 декабря 1793 года, назначение произошло 22 декабря 1793 года). При Директории добился чина дивизионного генерала и должности командующего военными силами тыла (после разгрома мятежа 13 вандемьера 1795 года), а затем должности командующего Итальянской армией (назначение произошло 2 марта 1796 года). В 1798—1799 годах возглавлял военную экспедицию в Египет. 
§ В ноябре 1799 года совершил государственный переворот (18 брюмера), в результате которого стал первым консулом, фактически сосредоточив тем самым в своих руках всю полноту власти. Установил диктаторский режим. Провёл ряд реформ (основаниеФранцузского банка (1800), принятие гражданского кодекса (1804) и другие).
§ 18 мая 1804 года был провозглашён императором. Победоносные наполеоновские войны, особенно австрийская кампания 1805года, прусская и польская кампании 1806—1807 годов, австрийская кампания 1809 года способствовали превращению Франции в главную державу на континенте. Однако неудачное соперничество Наполеона с «владычицей морей» Великобританией не позволяло этому статусу полностью закрепиться. 
§ Поражение Великой армии в войне 1812 года против России положило начало крушению империи Наполеона I. После «битвы народов» под Лейпцигом Наполеон уже не мог противостоять союзникам. Вступление в 1814 году войск антифранцузской коалиции в Париж вынудило Наполеона I отречься от престола. Он был сослан на остров Эльба.
§ Вновь занял французский престол в марте 1815 года (Сто дней). После поражения при Ватерлоо вторично отрёкся от престола (22 июня 1815).
§ Последние годы жизни провёл на острове Святой Елены пленником англичан. Его прах с 1840 года находится в Доме инвалидов вПариже.
§ 28 флореаля (18 мая 1804 года) постановлением Сената (так называемым сенатус-консультом XII года) Наполеон был провозглашён императором французов[50][51]. В ноябре сенатус-консульт был ратифицирован по результатам плебисцита. 2 декабря 1804 года в ходе пышной церемонии, проходившей в соборе Парижской Богоматери с участием папы римского, Наполеон короновал себя императором французов[52].
§ 19 мая 1804 г. Наполеоновским кабинетом был опубликован декрет, которого ждала вся армия. 18 популярных генералов назначались маршалами Франции, причём четверо из них считались почётными, а остальные — действительными.
§ 17 марта 1805 года из марионеточной Итальянской республики, в которой Наполеон был президентом, было создано Королевство Италия. Во вновь образованном Королевстве Италия Наполеон получил титул короля, а его пасынок Евгений Богарне — титул вице-короля. В мае 1805 г. марионеточнаяЛигурийская республика была присоединена к Франции.
§ Политика Наполеона в первые годы его правления пользовалась поддержкой населения — не только собственников, но и малоимущих (рабочих, батраков). Дело в том, что оживление в экономике вызвало рост зарплаты, чему способствовали и постоянные наборы в армию. Наполеон выглядел спасителем отечества, войны вызывали национальный подъём, а победы — чувство гордости. Ведь Наполеон Бонапарт был человеком революции, а окружающие его маршалы, блестящие военачальники, происходили подчас из самых низов. Но постепенно народ начинал уставать от войны, длившейся уже около 20 лет. Наборы в армию стали вызывать недовольство. К тому же в 1810 году вновь разразился экономический кризис. Войны на просторах Европы теряли смысл, затраты на них стали раздражать буржуазию. Безопасности Франции, казалось, ничто не угрожало, а во внешней политике всё большую роль играло стремление императора укрепить и обеспечить интересы династии, не допустив, в случае своей смерти, как анархии, так и реставрации Бурбонов.
§ Во имя этих интересов Наполеон развёлся с первой женой Жозефиной, от которой не имел детей, и в 1808 году просил через Талейрана у российского императора Александра I руки его сестры великой княжны Екатерины Павловны, но предложение это император отклонил. В 1810 году Наполеон также получил отказ в браке с другой сестрой Александра I, 14-летней великой княжной Анной Павловной (впоследствии королевой Нидерландов). В 1810Наполеон наконец женился на дочери австрийского императора Марии-Луизе. Наследник родился (1811), но австрийский брак императора был крайне непопулярен во Франции.
§ Союзники Наполеона, принявшие континентальную блокаду вопреки своим интересам, не стремились строго её соблюдать. Росла напряжённость между ними и Францией. Всё более очевидными становились противоречия между Францией и Россией. Патриотические движения ширились в Германии, в Испании не угасала герилья.
§ Разорвав отношения с Александром I, Наполеон решился на войну с Россией. Русская кампания 1812 стала началом конца Империи. Огромная разноплеменная армия Наполеона не несла в себе прежнего революционного духа, вдали от родины на полях России она быстро таяла и, наконец, перестала существовать.
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