TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
i.immatical structure of the English language....................................................................... 11
Part I. ACCIDENCE
• Iicral classification of the parts of speech..................................................................... 13
Chapter I. THE NOUN
§ 1. Definition 14
§ 2. Morphological characteristics —
§ 3. Syntactical characteristics •—
§ 4. Morphological composition 15
§ 5. Classification 16
§ 6. The category of number 18
§ 7. The category of case. 22
Chapter II. THE ARTICLE
§ 1. Gencrar notion 25
I 'sc of articles with common nouns.................................................................................... —
$ 2—4. Class nouns —
£ 5—7. Nouns of material.. 31
§ 8—11. Abstract nouns —
I Isc of articles with proper nouns.............................................................................. 32
§ 12. Names of persons —
§ 13. Geographical names 34
§ 14. Names of hotels, ships, newspapers and magazines —
§ 15. Names of cardinal points 35
§ 16. Names of months and days —
§ 17. Nouns modified by proper nouns —
Use of articles with nouns in some set expressions...................................................... 36
§ 18. The use of the indefinite article with nouns in set expressions...................... —
§ 19. The use of the definite article with nouns in set expressions —
. § 20. Nouns in set expressions used without an article 37
§ 21. The use of articles with predicative nouns 38
§ 22. The use of articles with nouns in apposition 39
§ 23. The use of articles with nouns used in address 40
§ 24. Place of the article —
§ 25. Ways of expressing the meaning of the English articles in
Russian 41
Spcclol difficulties in the use of articles.....................................................................
§ 26. The use of articles with the nouns day, night, morning,
evening............................................................................................
<j 27. The use of articles with names of seasons
§ 28. The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail...............
§ 29. The use of articles with the noun town
§ 30. The use of articles with the names of meals
<! 31. The use of articles with names of languages
I Iso of articles with nouns modified by certain adjectives, pronouns
and numerals..................................................................................................
§ 32. Most.................................................................................................
§ 33. Few, a few, the few, little, a little, the little
§ 34. Two, the two\ three, the three, etc...........................................................
§ 35. The second, a second.............................................................................
§ 36. Another, the other................................................................................
§ 37. Last, the last......................................................................................
§ 38. Next, the next.......................................................................................
§ 39. y4 number, the number..........................................................................
Omission of the article............................................................................................
Chapter HI. THE ADJECTIVE
§ 1. Definition-............................................................................................
§ 2. Morphological characteristics....................................................................
§ 3. Spelling rules
§ 4. Syntactical characteristics........................................................................
§ 5. Morphological composition.....................................................................
§ 6. Classification........................................................................................
§ 7. Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives....
§ 8. Grammatical characteristics of relative adjectives
§ 9. Substantivized adjectives.........................................................................
Chapter IV. THE PRONOUN
§ 1.... Definition.........................................................................................
§ 2.... Classification..........................................
§ 3.... Personal pronouns......................................................
§ 4.... Possessive pronouns.........................................................
§ 5.... Reflexive pronouns.............................................................................
§ 6.... Reciprocal pronouns............................................................................
§ 7..... Demonstrative pronouns.......................................................................
§ 8. Interrogative pronouns.
§ 9..... Relative pronouns...............................................................................
§ 10... Conjunctive pronouns..........................................................................
§11.... Defining pronouns...............................................................................
§ 12... Indefinite pronouns.............................................................................
§ 13... Negative pronouns..............................................................................
Chapter V. THE NUMERAL
§ 1. Definition.............................................................................................
§ 2. Cardinal numerals...................................................................................
§ 3. The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence
§ 4. Ordinal numerals....................................................................................
ij 5. The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence
Chapter VI. THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE
§ I. Definition..............................................................................................
ij 2- 4. Morphological composition and use
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. Morphological structure
§ 3. Basic forms
§ 4. Syntactic function....
§ 5. Transitive and intransitive verbs
§ 6. Lexical character
§ 7—10. Grammatical categories
Tenses in the Active Voice.............................................................................................
The Indefinite form.................................................................................................
The Present Indefinite
§ 1. The formation of the Present Indefinite
§ 2. The use of the Present Indefinite
The Past Indefinite
§ 3. The formation of the Past Indefinite
§ 4. The use of the Past Indefinite
The Future Indefinite
§ 5. The formation pf the Future Indefinite
§ 6. The use of the Future Indefinite
The Future Indefinite in the Past
§ 7. The formation of the Future Indefinite in the Past....
§ 8. The use of the Future Indefinite in the Past
The Continuous form
The Present Continuous
§ 9. The formation of the Present Continuous...
§ 10. The use of the Present Continuous
The Past Continuous
§ 11. The formation of the Past Continuous
§ 12. The use of the Past Continuous
The Future Continuous
§ 13. The formation of the Future Continuous
§ 14. The use of the Future Continuous
The Future Continuous in the Past
§ 15. The formation of the Future Continuous in the Past....
§ 16. The use of the Future Continuous in the Past
Verbs not used in the Continuous form '...
The Perfect form
The Present Perfect
§ 17. The formation of the Present Perfect....
§ 18. The use of the Present Perfect
§ 19. The Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect
The Past Perfect
§ 20. The formation of the Past Perfect
§ 21. The use of the Past Perfect
§ 22. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect
The Future Perfect
§ 23. The formation of the Future Perfect
§ 24. The use of fhe Future Perfect
The Future Perfect in the Past
§ 25. The formation of the Future Perfect in the Past
§ 26. The use of the Future Perfect in the Past
The Perfect Continuous form
The Present Perfect Continuous
§ 27. The formation of the Present Perfect Continuous
§ 28. The use of the Present Perfect Continuous
§ 29. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present
Continuous
§ 30. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive.................
The Past Perfect Continuous..............................................................................
§ 31. The formation of the Past Perfect Continuous............................................
§ 32. The use of the Past Perfect Continuous.....................................................
§ 33. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Continuous...................
The Future Perfect Continuous...........................................................................
§ 34. The formation of the Future Perfect Continuous.........................................
§ 35. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous..................................................
The Future Perfect Continuous in the Past............................................................
§ 36. The formation of the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past § 37. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past...
The Passive Voice........................................................................................................
§ 1. The formation of the Passive Voice............................................................
§ 2. The use of the Passive Voice....................................................................
§ 3. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice...................................................;
§ 4. Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian......
§ 5. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language.
§ 6. The verb to fee+ Participle II.....................................................................
Modal Verbs...............................................................................................................
§ 1. Definition............................................................................................
§ 2. Can............................................. *......................................................
§ 3. May.................................................................................................
§ 4. Must....................................................................................................
§ 5. Should and ought.........................................................................
§ 6. To 6e+Infinitive........................................................................... <
§ 7. To have-\- Infinitive................................................................................
§ 8. Shall..............................................................................................
§ 9. Will......................................................................................................
§ 10. Would.................................................................................................
§ 11. Dare..................................................................................................
§ 12. Need..................................................................................................
Mood........................................................................................................................
The Indicative Mood
The Imperative Mood
The Subjunctive Mood
;ral notion.,...
§ | 1. |
§ | 2. |
§ | 3. |
§ | 4. |
The | use |
§ | 5. |
§ | 6. |
§ | 7. |
§ | 8. |
| 9. |
§ | 10. |
§ | 11. |
§ | 12. |
§ | 13. |
§ | 14. |
§ | 15. |
S | 16. |
§ | 17. |
Adverbial clauses of purpose. Adverbial clauses of concession |
Predicative clauses |
is o(rendering the Subjunctive Mood in Russian,..
Chapttr VIII. THE NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VF.RH (Till':
VERBALS)
? |
l. Definition.........................................................................................
2. The characteristic traits of the verbals.......................................................
The Participle........................................................................................................... 154
§ 3. General notion. —
§ 4. Double nature of the participle 155
§ 5. Tense distinctions. 156
§ 6. Voice distinctions 158
§ 7. Functions of Participle I —
§ 8. Functions of Participle II 163
§ 9. Predicative constructions with the participle 165
§ 10. The Objective Participial Construction —
§ 11. The Subjective Participial Construction 166
§ 12. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction 167
§ 13. The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction.... 168
§ 14. Absolute constructions without a participle —
§ 15. Punctuation 169
The Gerund...................................................................................................................... 170
§ 16. General notion —
§ 17. Double nature of the gerund —
§ 18. Tense distinctions 172
§ 19. Voice distinctions 173
§ 20. Predicative constructions with the gerund —
§21. The use of the gerund 175
§ 22. The gerund and the infinitive. 179
§ 23. The functions of the gerund 180
§ 24. The gerund and the participle 184
§ 25. The gerund and the verbal noun '. 185
The Infinitive.............................................................................................................. —
§ 26. General notion —
§ 27. Tense and aspect distinctions of the infinitive 186
§ 28. Voice distinctions 187
§ 29. The use of the infinitive without the particle to 188
§ 30. The functions of the infinitive 190
§ 31. Infinitive constructions 195
§ 32. The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction •—
§ 33. The Subjective Infinitive Construction.. 199
§ 34. The for-/o-Infinitive Construction 201
§ 35. The Infinitive with the expressions to be sorry, to be glad. 203
Chapter IX. THE ADVERB
§ 1. Definition 204
§ 2. Morphological structure —
§ 3. Degrees of comparison —
§ 4. Classification —
Chapter X. THE MODAL WORDS
§ 1. Definition 206
§ 2. Classification —
§ 3. Use • —
§ 4. Modal words and adverbs —
Chapter XI. THE INTERJECTION
§ I. Definition 208
§ 2. Classification —
§ 3. Morphological composition —
Chapter XII. THE PREPOSITION
§ 1. Definition 210
§ 2. Morphological structure —
§ 3. Classification 210
§4. Prepositions, adverbs and conjunctions 211
§ 5. Prepositions and postpositions —
Chapter XIII. THE CONJUNCTION
§ 1. Definition 213
§ 2. Morphological structure —
§ 3. Classification —
§ 4. Coordinating conjunctions 214
§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions 217
Chapter XIV. THE PARTICLE
§ 1. Definition 219
§ 2. Classification —
Part II. SYNTAX Chapter XV. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
§ 1. Definition 221
§ 2. Classification —
§ 3—4. Structure... 224
Parts of the Sentence
The principal parts of the sentence.................................................................................... 225
The subject —
§ 5. Definition —
§ 6. Ways of expressing the subject. —
§ 7. It as the subject of the sentence 228
The predicate 229
§ 8. Definition —
§ 9. The simple predicate 230
§ 10. The predicate expressed by a phraseological unit —
§11. The compound predicate. 232
§ 12. The compound nominal predicate.............................................................
§ 13. The predicative 234
§ 14. The Objective Predicative 236
§ 15. The compound verbal predicate 237
§ 16. The compound verbal modal predicate —
§ 17. The compound verbal aspect predicate 238
§ 18. Mixed types of predicate. 239
Agreement of the predicate with the subject —
§ 19. General notion —
§ 20. Rules of agreement 240
§ 21. Agreement of the predicate with the subject expressed by
a syntactic word-group 244
The secondary parts of the sentence.................................................................................. 246
The object • —
§ 22. Definition —s
§ 23. Ways of expressing the object —
24. Kinds of objects.'. 248
4 25. The direct object —
§ 26. The indirect object —
§ 27. The complex object. 251
§ 28. The cognute object 252
The attribute —•
§ 29. Definition.,. —
§ 30. Wnys of expressing the attribute.............................................................. — § 31. The apposition 256
§ 32. The close apposition —
§ 33. The loose or detached apposition 257
The adverbial modifier —
§ 34. Definition and classification —
§ 35. Ways of expressing the adverbial modifier 258
Detached (loose) parts of the sentence •... 261
§ 36. Definition —
§ 37. The detached adverbial modifier —
§ 38. The detached attribute 262
§ 39. The detached object —
The independent elements of the sentence —
§ 40. Definition —
§ 41. Parenthesis 263
Sentences with homogeneous parts —
Chapter XVI. WORD ORDER
§ 1. General remarks 265
§ 2—4. Inverted order of words —
§ 5. Position of the object 270
§ 6. Position of the attribute 271
§ 7. Position of adverbial modifiers 274
Chapter XV/1. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
The compound sentence............................................................................................... 279
§ 1. General notion —
§ 2. Types of coordination —
The complex sentence................................................................................................... 281
§ 3. General notion —
§ 4. Subject clauses 282
§ 5. Predicative clauses 283
§ 6. Object clauses 284
§ 7. Attributive clauses • 286
§ 8. Attributive relative clauses —
§ 9. Attributive appositive clauses 288
§ 10. The use of relative pronouns in' attributive relative
clauses —
§ 11. Adverbial clauses 289
§ 12. Adverbial clauses of time 290
§ 13. Adverbial clauses of place 292
§ 14. Adverbial clauses of cause —
§ 15. Adverbial clauses of purpose....’... —
§ 16. Adverbial clauses of condition 293
§ 17. Adverbial clauses of concession —
§ 18. Adverbial clauses of result 294
§ 19. Adverbial clauses of manner —
§ 20. Adverbial clauses of comparison —
§21. Polysemantic conjunctions 295
The compound-complex sentence.............................................................................. —
Parenthetical clauses 296
Chapter XV111. THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
§ 1. Definition 297
§ 2—5- General rules —
§ 6. Tenses in English and in Russian 298
§ 7. Tenses in object clauses 299
§ 8. Tenses in conventional direct speech.........................................................
§ 9. Tenses in attributive relative clauses and adverbial clauses
of cause, result, comparison, and concession
§ 10. Tenses in subject clauses and predicative clauses.........................................
Chapter XIX. INDIRECT SPEECH
§ 1—2. General remarks.........................................................................
§ 3. Indirect statements..................................................................................
§ 4. Indirect questions...................................................................................
§ 5. Indirect orders and requests.......................................................................
§ 6. Indirect offers, suggestions, and advice.......................................................
§ 7. Indirect exclamations...............................................................................
§ 8. Greetings and leave-taking........................................................................
Chapter XX. PUNCTUATION
§ 1. General remarks......................................................................................
The simple sentence...............................................................................................
§ 2. Homogeneous members..................................................................,..
§ 3. Detached members..................................................................................
§ 4. Parenthetical words, groups of words, and clauses.........................................
§ 5. Interjections..........................................................................................
§ 6. Nouns in address....................................................................................
The compound sentence..........................................................................................
§ 7. Coordinate clauses joined asyndetically.......................................................
§ 8. Coordinate clauses joined by copulative conjunctions.... § 9. Coordinate clauses joined by disjunctive conjunctions.... § 10. Coordinate clauses joined by adversative conjunctions.... § 11. Clauses joined by causative-consecutive conjunctions and
conjunctive adverbs
§ 12. Sentences containing direct speech...........................................................
The complex sentence.............................................................................................
§ 13. Subject clauses......................................................................................
§ 14. Predicative clauses..............................................................................'
§ 15. Object clauses......................................................................................
§ 16. Attributive clauses.................................................................................
§ 17. Adverbial clauses..................................................................................
§ 18. Complex sentences consisting of two or more homogeneous
clauses
§ 19. Declarative non-exclamatory sentences.......................................................
§ 20. Sentences expressing a question...............................................................
§ 21. Exclamatory sentences............................................................................
§ 22. Unfinished sentences..............................................................................
INTRODUCTION
UtAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
§ 1. Languages may be synthetic and analytical according to I heir grammatical structure.
In synthetic languages, such as for instance Russian, the grammatical relations between words are expressed by means of inflections: e. g. крыша дома.
In analytical languages, such as English, the grammatical relations between words are expresseed by means of form words and word order: e. g. the roof of the house.
§ 2. Analytical forms are mostly proper to verbs. An analytical wib-form consists of one or more form words, which have no lexi-
•.11 meaning and only express one or more of the grammatical < iie^ories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood, and one notional word, generally an infinitive or a participle: e. g. He has come, I am reading.
The analytical forms are:
1. Tense and Aspect verb-forms (the Continuous form: I am writing, the Perfect form: I have written, the Perfect Continuous lumi: I have been writing, the Future Indefinite: I shall write,
■ ill the other forms of the Future; also the interrogative and the Illative forms of the Present and Past Indefinite: Does he sing? He does not sing).
2. The Passive Voice: I was invited to the theatre.
3. The analytical form of the Subjunctive Mood: I should go Инге if I had time.
In all these analytical forms the form word is an auxiliary verb.
(For detailed treatment see chapters on the verb.)
§ 3. However, the structure of a language is never purely syn- IIii fie or purely analytical. Accordingly in the English language I here are:
1. Endings:
-s in the third person singular in the Present Indefinite: speaks\
-s in the plural of nouns: tables',
•s in the genitive case: my brother's book;
-ed in the Past Indefinite of regular verbs: smoked.
2. Inner flexions: man —men; speak —spoke.
3. The synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood: were, be, have, etc.
§ 4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires extreme importance: The fisherman* caught a fish.
A deviation from the general principle of word order is possible only in special cases.
(For detailed treatment see Chapter XVI, Word Order.)
§ 5. One of the marked features of the English language is the extensive use of substitutes. A word substitute saves the repetition of a word in certain conditions. Here belong one, that, do.
One replaces class nouns in the singular and in the plural:
Thanks for the compliment, if it is one.
The hours he spent with Ruth were the only happy ones he had, and they were not all happy. (London)
That generally substitutes nouns, especially abstract nouns and nouns of material followed by an attribute, mostly introduced by the preposition of:
He (Martin) watched the easy walk of the other in front of him, and for the first time realized that his walk was different from that of other men. (London)
Almost every day thereafter Mrs. Skelton would go for a ride in her own car or that of Castleman. (Dreiser)
Do substitutes verbs:
You know your law better than 1 do. (Galsworthy)
Forgive me for speaking with brutal frankness, 1 only do so because I care. (Alexander)
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