1.Pr. S. is formed from the Infinitive without “to”. In 3rd person singular the ending –s is added. In the interrogative and negative the auxiliary do(does)is used -typically with adverbials

1.Pr. S. is formed from the Infinitive without “to”. In 3rd person singular the ending –s is added. In the interrogative and negative the auxiliary do(does)is used -typically with adverbials such as always, seldom, often, every day -the action is general -the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future -the action is not only happening now -the statement is always true -with stative verbs -in summaries of historical events -in informal story-telling -in subordinate clauses of time and condition	2.Pr.C. is formed with the help of the auxiliary be and the Pr. Participle of the main verb. The Pr.C. is used to denote -action in progress -action having a dynamic character -action of universal frequency to convey a feeling of irritation, criticism -pre-arranged, planned, intended future actions -background actions in informal story-telling P.C. is formed with the help of the auxiliary was/were and the Pr.Participle of the main verb, is used to denote -action in progress at a definite moment in the past or during a definite period of time in the past - past action of universal frequency to convey a feeling of irritation, criticism -reported present-time action in progress	3.P.S. is formed by adding -ed to the regular verbs Is used to denote -a single event fact of the past typically with adverbials such as ago, yesterday, the other day, last year -a succession of single past events -repeated, habitual past action -reported present-time action
4.Pr.P. is formed with the help of the auxiliary have/has and the P. Participle of the main verb is used to denote -action completed in the past but connected in their result with the present -incomplete actions that started in the past and are still happening in the present with emphasis on the result of the activity Pr.P.C. is is formed with the help of the auxiliary have/has been and the Pr. Participle of the main verb is used to denote -an action that started at some moment in the past, continued over the period of time and is still happening now or has just stopped with results -an exaggerated duration of a recent action for an emotionally collared effect [she has been telling lies all her life]	5.P.Perf.. is formed with the help of the auxiliary had and the Past Participle of the main verb is used to denote -a past action completed before another past action or before a moment in the past -P.S. transformation into P.Perf. in a reported speech P.Perf.C... is formed with the help of the auxiliary had been and the Pr. Participle of the main verb is used to denote refers to earlier past activities of certain duration that were either still in progress at a given later time in the past or completed by that time.	6.F.S. is formed with shall/will + Infin. of the main verb. Is used to denote -a predicted future action -an action which the speaker regards as possible to happen in the F -a spontaneously action -an enquiry for instruction -refusals, resistance and typical behavior
7.F.C. is formed with the F.S. Tense of the auxiliary to be And the Pr. Participle of the main verb -an action that will be in progress at a definite moment or during a certain period of time in F -to talk about events that are a result or a part of an a rangement in advance -a speaker’s prediction concerning a F situation -a F action which is part of a regular routine, which doesn’t need any special arrangement	8.F.P. is formed with the F.Perf.. Tense of the auxiliary to have and the P. Participle of the main verb Is used to denote -an action viewed as completed by a definite F moment or before another F action -with stative verbs it denotes an action lasting over certain of time up to given F moment F.P.C.. is formed with the F.S. Tense of the auxiliary to be And the Pr. Participle of the main verb -an action lasting for a period of time up to or including a certain F moment [By the end of the year they’ll have been working there for 10 years]	9. Pr.C. and Pr.S. have same features. they both happen at present moment and use in informal story-telling in background actions. But Pr.C. is used to denote the prosess, frequency and planed actions in future and Pr.S. to show a fact, regular activities, habitual actions, time-table and offers.
10. P.S denote 1. single event, fact in past. 2. a succession of single past event 3.habitial actions in past P.C. denote 1.action, during definite moment in past 2.unusual frequency 3.polite reqest They both use in sequence of tences	11..As compared to the Pr.Perf.,the Pr.Perf.C tense is used to express action in progress, that started at some time in the past, and continued over a period of time, still happening now. And Present Perfect tense means actions that completed in the past. However, this time have a similarity. They connected of result with the present.	12. As compared to the Past simple tense. The present perfect tense is used to denote actions completed in the past but connected in their result with the present. Past simple tense is used to express a single events, facts or state in the past. This both times are used to express actions that happened in the past and that actions are completed.

13. As compared to the Past simple tense. The Past Perfect tense is used to denote a past action completed before another past action or before a moment in the past. The Past simple tense is used to express a single events, facts or state in the past. Moreover, from a succession of single past events, facts, or states. This both times are used to express actions that happened in the past and that actions are completed.	15. As compared to the Past Cont. tense, The Past Perf.Cont.tense is used to express an action that happened in progress, or during a definite of time in the past and this action happened earlier than another action in the past. Similar to the Past Cont. tense and The Past Perf.Cont.tense these both tense-forms denote a past action in progress at a definite moment.	16.F.C and Pr.C. Both tenses are used for predictions, planned, pre-arranged future actions. But the Future Continuous is used to distance the arrangement a little, making it more fixed and less open to change. Examples The bad will be performing live in Warsaw this summer. When are you moving to Leeds? Then the Future Continuous tense we also use to denote a future action which is part of a regular routine (a matter-of-course event), which does not need special arrangement. (I’ll be passing the post-office on my way home from work, so I’ll buy you a newspaper.) The Present Continuous denotes actions in progress happening at the present moment (I’m writing a letter now) and around the present moment. (Marta is collecting material for his new book now)Then denotes actions or states having a dynamic character, actions of unusual frequency, background actions in informal story-telling (There’s this Scotsman, you see, and he’s walking through the jungle when he meets a gorilla.)
17. F.Per.C and F.Per. Both these future tenses denote an action in the future before another happening later future action and this moment can be indicated by an adverbial with the preposition by or by another future action.(My sister will have left school by Luly)(By the end of the year, they’ll have been working at this project for two years) But the present perfect c. tense denotes an action viewed as completed by a definite future moment or before another future action. With stative verbs it denotes an action lasting over a certain period of time up to the given future moment.	20 2. The present Cont. tense Is used for fixed plans and personal arrangements, especially social and travel arrangements. The future meaning of the Pr.Cont. is made clear by the time reference and is frequently associated with verbs of movement (go, come, fly, arrive) but other groups of verbs are used. (My Dad is flying to Paris tonight.) 3. The present simple tense Is used to express a definite future arrangement in a more formal language.(it is timetables, routines, schedules) It is describes fixed events which do not depend on the speaker’s plans or intentions. (Next term starts on April 6)	18. In English the tense of the verb in a subordinate clause depends on that of the verb in the principal clause. This adjustment of tense –forms is called The Sequence of tenses. Rules of S.of t. 1. A present or future tense in the principal clause may be followed in the subordinate by any tense is required by the sense. 2. A past tense in the principle clause must be followed by a past tense in the subordinate clause. (Tense depends on time relations) - action is simultaneous => Past Simple, Contin. - action is prior or lasted a certain time before => Past Perfect, Past per cont - action refers to a future moment=> Future in the past Adverbials and demonstrative pronouns change (today,tonight=> that day, here=> there, now=> then, ago=> before, the day after tomorrow=> in two days’ time)
22. The sequence of tenses may not be observed: -if the object clause expresses general truth. -if the action in object clause refers to what is believed to be a regular occurrence or existing fact. -when the point of reference for the past tence in the principal clause is the moment of speech -if the statement is still up to date when we report it -in political language. note: we usually change the tence if the action in the pricipal clause is out of date or may be untrue.	19. “To be going to + infinitive construction”= to about to do smth,to be on the point of doing smth. 1) To talk about intentions concerning things already decided or plans that have already been made. (We are going to get a new car soon) 2)To make predictions about a future situations which already has signs or causes in the present.(Look at that tree! It’s going to fall) 3)To express a decision or a firm determination.(I’m going to ask for a rise next month)	24. A direct question 1.A direct question is retendet by a subordinate object clause in a complex narrative sentence. Inoter words,it becomes part of a statement and there`s no invertion in the reported question. Eg. What`s the time? I asked.I just asked what the time was. 'Is there a cafe?' Joe asked if/whether there was a cafe. Special and general questions are joined to the reporting phrase, which is the principal clause, by what,when,how,which or by if/whether. 2.A direct question become a subordinate object clause of a complex indirect question, where the main clause is 'Do u know..','Could u tell me..' ect.<Do u know if there`s a public phone?>
25.Indirect imperatives Exact communicative meaning of an imperative are an order, a request -they reported with the help of an infinitive construction. Eg. Be careful! The above communicative meaning usualy expressed by questions like: Would you..? Why not..? The reported requests usually use 'ask'; He told me to give him some mohey. The verb 'suggest' can`t be formed with the help of infinitive. 'Let`s reported by 'urge/advise'<The boss said,'let`s... Verbs taking the inf.<advise, invite,offer,warn>. Verbs taking the gerund<apologize for,mind,suggest.>	26.Exclametions become statements in indirect speech and exlamation mars disappears. Exclametions beginning with 'What..'/'How' can be reported by 'exclaim'/'say that'. Eg.He said,'What a wonderful day!' In some cases an exclametion is reported by a simple sent. Express in the idea of the original sent. and preserving its wording. 'Yes'&'No' answers are expressed by an elliptical sentence consisting of the subject and an appropriate axiliary verb:He said,'Can u swim?'and i said,'No'.	23. indirect statements There are two ways of relatong what a person said: direct & indirect. In direct speech we repeat the original speaker’s exact words: He said: I have lost my keys. In indirect statements are typically introduced by following reporting verbs: add,claim,insist,tell,say,answer,feel,suppose,hope,deny... Reporting verbs 'say' & 'tell' the most frequently used.

28. Communicative types of sentences: 1) Declarative(повествовательное)-sentences form the bulk of monological speech and the greater part of conversation. They may be positive or negative: e.g. I have just come from a business trip. I haven’t seen my sister yet. 2) Interrogative(вопросительное)-sentences ask for information. All questions may be structurally of two main types:1. General2. Special A general questions starts with an auxiliary or a link verb followed by subject. e.g. Are you happy? Can you speak French? Dou you like…? A disjunctive question is a shot yes-no question added to a statement. This is usually done when you expect the listener to agree with you or to confirm your statement. e.g. You like poems, don’t you? An alternative question implies a choice between two or more alternative answers. e.g. Do you like your coffee white or black?- Black, please. A special question starts with a question word, the function of which is to get more detailed information about a person, thing.The word order is characterized by inversion expect for the question to the subject of sentence. e.g. Where do you live? 3) Imperative(побудительное)-sentences express commands. Eg. Speak louder, please. 4) Exclamatory(восклицательное)-sentences express ideas emphatically. e.g.What a situation! Fire!	29. The main parts of the sentence are the subject and the prediсate. The subject is a part of a sentence that denotes an agent, an instrument, a recipient. Structurally subject can be of four kinds: 1) simple – expressed by a single word form: The fog is thinning. ‘And’ is a conjunction. To live means to learn. 2) phrasal – expressed by a phrase: Two and three is five. 3) complex – expressed by a predicative complex - a for-to-infinitive construction: It’s easy for you to talk so. - a gerundial complex: Your knowing a thing is nothing unless another knows that you know it. 4) clausal – expressed by a subject clause: What I need is a piece of good advice. The subject can be expressed by any part of speech, but mainly by nouns and pronouns. The predicate is the second main part of the sentence and its organizing center.It's a component of a sentence which expresses a state,an action or an event.The predicate may be considered from the semantic or from the structural point of view. 1. simple-consist of a single verb:Marry has come. 2. compound nominal-consist of a link verb and a noun phrase,a numeral,eg:My mam is a doctor. compound verbal-consist of two verbs:one in the finite form,the other is infinitive or gerund:He wants to stay. 21.lignment of times in English (Sequence of Tenses) very closely related to indirect speech in English (Reported Speech). transforming direct speech into indirect. Matching rules to time in the English language come into force if the predicate in the main clause expressed a form of past tense. In this case, matching rules are observed since almost always, except in a few cases, which will be discussed further. 1.If the action in the main and subordinate clauses occur simultaneously, then the verb in the subordinate clause requires a simple form of the past (Past Simple) or the past continuous (Past Continuous) times. Type the past tense in the main clause in this case is irrelevant. 2.If the action in the subordinate clause precedes the action in the main clause, the subordinate clause, we use the past perfect (Past Perfect) or past-quite a long time (Past Perfect Continuous). 3.If the action in the subordinate clause refers to a future time, we use the verb in the same sentence in the form of a simple or extended future in the past, the so-called Future in the Past, or any other form of expression of the future. When the rule is not respected: 1.In the subordinate clause refers to the world famous truth or fact. 2.In the subordinate clause is a modal verb must, should, ought to. 3 If the speaker refers to words that have just been told. 4.In the subordinate clause, introduced unions when / since, simple past tense (Past Simple) does not change its shape. 5.Esli in the subordinate clause since a long time (Past Continuous), it also does not change.	30. “it” as subject of sentence The notional subject “it” has two meanings: 1) The personal it, which stands for a definite thing or an abstract idea: The elephant is intelligent. It never forgets. 2) The demonstrative “it” points out some person or a thing expressed by predicative or refers to the thought contained in a preceding statement: Who is that?- It is me/ It is Jane. The formal subject “it” is used to complete the structure of the sentence grammatically. There are three kinds of the formal subject “it”: 1) The impersonal “it”: It is bitterly cold. 2) The introductory “it” introduces the notional subject expressed by an infinitive, a gerund, infinitive/gerundial phrase, a predicative complex or a clause. The sentence thus contains two subject: the formal “it” and the notional subject, which follows the predicate: It is a pity that you forgot. It is funny watching myself on TV. 3) The emphatic “it” is used in cleft sentences, which are a device for focusing attention on a particular piece of information. The structure it is/was…that(who)…can be used to emphasize any part of the sentence expect the predicate: It was Jane, who cooked dinner. It was yesterday,that Jane cooked dinner. Phrases: 1. It is no surprise that 2. It is no wonder Existential there We use “there + to be” to introduce new information. The word “there” has no real meaning in this structure – it functions as a gram matical subject: There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies and statistics. There is always one moment in childhood when the door opens and lets the future in.
14. The Past Perf.Cont.tense is used to express an action that happened in progress, or during a definite of time in the past and this action happened earlier than another action in the past and tense-forms denote a past action in progress at a definite moment. P.Perf.. is formed with the help of the auxiliary had and the Past Participle of the main verb is used to denote -a past action completed before another past action or before a moment in the past	31. Secondary parts of the sentence Noun modifier is a part of the sentence which refers to a noun or another word of nominal nature and expresses a state, a process. Can be used in preposition and in past-position. Eg.I saw a red car near my house. The people invited didn’t come. The Object is a part of the sentence which usually denotes participants in the event different from the subject, occurs after transitive verbs and can become the subject in a passive structure. The Complement is an obligatory constituent of the sentence which completes the predicate and which cannot become the subject in a passive construction. The Attribute is a part of the sentence which refers to a noun or another word of nominal nature and expresses a state, a quality, evaluation, etc. The Apposition is a peculiar attribute expressed by a noun or nominal phrase which refers to another noun or nominal phrase. The apposition may give another designation to, or description of, the person or non-person. Types of OBJECT: - Direct object-when the object join the V: He wrote the article. Most of the transitive Vs are used in passive voice. - Indirect object-the object which stands between the V and the direct object: He gave me a book. - Prepositional object- the object which follows the direct object and it used with propositions: He gave a book to me. The Vs which are asousieted only with the subject are called SUBJECTIVE. They can’t have an object and they can’t be used at a passive constructive. Eg. He runs fast. The Vs which are asousieted only with the subject and the predicate are called OBJECTIVE. They may have an object and billed a passive constructive. Eg. He took a book.	27. Structural classification of sentences 1. Simple or composite (compound and complex). 2. Complete or incomplete (elliptical). 3. Two-member (double-nucleus) or one-member (single-nucleus). Simple sentence contains only one subject-predicate unit (clause). Composite sentence contains more than one subject-predicate unit (clause). Simple sentence contains only one subject-predicate unit (clause). Composite sentence contains more than one subject-predicate unit (clause). One-member sen­tence has only one principal part, which is neither the subject nor the predicate. One-member sentences are always complete. One-member sentences in English are of two types: nominal sentences and verbal sentences. Two-member sentence has two main (principal) positions: those of the subject and of the predicate. Two-member sentences may be unextended or extended. An unextended sentence contains only the subject and the predicate.An e x t e n d e d s entence may contain variousoptional elements (including attributes, certain kinds of prepositional objects and adverbial modifiers). .

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