ABSTRACT
The coursework deals with analysis of peculiarities of public speaking in the field of politics. The work dwells on stylistic, lexical and grammatical devices used in political public speeches. Special attention is given to those devices which have the greatest influence on the audience.
The results if this research may be used as exemplification means at English lexicology classes.
АННОТАЦИЯ
Представленная курсовая работа посвящена анализу особенностей публичных выступлений на примере выдающихся политических деятелей. Подробно описываются стилистические, лексические и грамматические приемы, которые используются в политических речах. Особое внимание уделяется тем приемам, которые сильнее всего влияют на слушателей.
Результаты данного исследования могут быть использованы в качестве иллюстративного материала на практических занятиях по лексикологии английского языка.
CONTENT
TERMS AND CONVENTIONS INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1. THEORETICAL PART 1.1. The notion of public speaking and its development 1.2. Types of public speaking 1.3. Stylistic Peculiarities of public speaking 1.4. Lexical Peculiarities of public speaking 1.5. Grammatical Peculiarities of public speaking CHAPTER 2. PRACTICAL PART. название 2.1. Analysis of Barack Obama’s speech 2.2. Analysis of George Bush’s speech 2.3. Analysis of Hilary Clinton’s speech CONCLUSION REFERENCES APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX 2 APPENDIX 3 |
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TERMS AND CONVENTIONS
PUBLIC SPEAKING - the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners.
POLITICAL SPEECH - a speech that covers politics and virtually any sort of opinion, and just about anything not commercial.
STYLISTIC DEVICE - a subjective text-linguistic factor that reflects the particular way of textual organization selected by the author for the most adequate reflection of his vision of the world and described the situation and which is connected with stylistic structure of the utterance.
LEXICAL DEVICE - a subjective text-linguistic factor that reflects the particular way of textual organization selected by the author for the most adequate reflection of his vision of the world and described the situation and which is connected with lexical structure of the utterance.
GRAMMATICAL DEVICE - a subjective text-linguistic factor that reflects the particular way of textual organization selected by the author for the most adequate reflection of his vision of the world and described the situation and which is connected with grammatical structure of the utterance.
Real change is not what government can do –
Warm welcome -
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INTRODUCTION
The fear of public speaking is the most common fear and prevents many people from achieving their potential. Chinese newspapers [1] suppose that public speaking is one of the most prevalent awe in the western world that’s why a lot of films are made, a lot of books are written concerning this problem but still no one can come to common conclusion [2]. А majority of scientists advise to study properly speeches of outstanding political leaders as an example of successful public speaking.
Political public speaking is fundamental to advance in professional and public life. Learning how to become an effective public speaker and learning some peculiarities of it can be the key difference between success and failure in your life in society. Politicians like nobody understand the importance of speaking in public. Being able to verbally communicate effectively to other individuals or to groups is essential in business, as well as your personal life [3]. The relevance of the research is caused by the study of peculiarities of public speaking.
The object of the research is public speaking.
The subject of the research is lexico-grammatical and stylistic peculiarities of political public speaking.
The purpose of the research is to study the aspects of political public speaking at the modern stage of the English language development and to explore its peculiarities.
The achievement of the defined goal involves the solution of the following tasks:
· to study scientific literature of the subject matter in order to define the modern state of the problem;
· to define the notion of “public speaking’’ and study its development;
· to consider the most common types of public speaking;
· to discover the lexical peculiarities of public speaking (used in the speech of politicians);
· to discover the grammatical peculiarities of public speaking (used in the speech of politicians);
· to discover the stylistic peculiarities of public speaking (used in the speech of politicians);
· to analyze peculiarities which are presented in speeches of politicians today;
The theoretical significance of the research consists in characterizing public speaking as a phenomenon of the English language.
The practical significance of the research lies in the fact that it can be used as educational material for students studying lexicology of the English language in synchronic aspect.
СHAPTER 1. THEORETICAL PART
The notion of public speaking and its development
Public speaking is the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners. It is closely allied to "presenting", although the latter has more of a commercial advertisement connotation. Public speaking is commonly understood as a kind of face-to-face speaking between individuals and audience for the purpose of communication [4].
Scientists have different views on the subject of the history of public speaking. Some believe the history of public speaking began with the Greeks. Few teach that it lied with the Hebrews. But a vast majority agrees it began with the human race. Let us consider every point of view in reference to James Kudooski who “strongly believes that the history of public speaking is as old as the history of the humanity itself. It only became more structured and developed with the Greeks and Romans because over the course of human history, people had always used public speaking to deliver messages. Kings had had reasons to address their subjects from time to time [5]. Generals would often inspire and prepare soldiers for battle. Toasts had always been given at wedding ceremonies. All these had been made possible by public speaking. ”
The first point of view is that Public speaking was well-practiced among the ancient Hebrews. Hebrew Kings would inform their subjects. Religious leaders and teachers would instruct large assemblies. Plus the Hebrews had a long line of prophets who proclaimed divine messages in public places.
One of the earliest of such prophets was the prophet Moses. He constantly had to address the Israelites as he led them out of slavery from Egypt. He had to inform, inspire and at times rebuke them. He was indeed a great public speaker.
However, the first known book about public speaking was written about 2,400 B.C.E by an Egyptian official named Ptahhotep. He was vizier (minister) to Pharaoh Djedkare Isesi of the fifth dynasty.
Another group of scientists think that around the fifth century B.C.E, the Greek district of Athens was a prominent military, political and philosophical center. It was also a great center of learning. Democracy was on the rise in Athens. So citizens would gather in public places (especially at the market places) to debate political and other economic issues. It was more or less a forum for the exhibition of public speaking abilities. Hence, public speaking became an integral part of their daily life. (Tusitala Tom 2011; Jordan Gaines 2013)
A remarkable event that brought the necessity for public speaking to the fore was the establishment of the People’s Court by Solon (a renowned poet, statesman and lawmaker also known as one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece) in 594-593 B.C.E.
Profound Greek orators like Aristotle, Plato and Socrates developed theories and techniques that became bedrocks in public speaking. Their ideas later led to the development of schools where public speaking was taught in addition to mathematics and philosophy.
A name worthy of mention in ancient Greek history of public speaking is Demosthenes. He was a symbol of determination and resilience. He had a speech impediment and was described as ‘weak’ while growing up. But he was determined to be a successful public speaker. He would practice speaking with a pebble in his mouth to overcome his speech impediment. He would also practice speaking at the shore trying to make himself audible despite the roaring sound of the sea. The result was that he became a great public speaker [6].
The history of the human race is filled with great speakers who had tremendous impact on the world. For example:
· On March 23, 1775, Patrick Henry gave the famous “Liberty of Death” speech. His famous phrase, “Give me freedom, or give me death!” had a great impact as he proclaimed the cause of freedom.
· In 1863, President Abraham Lincoln gave the famous “Gethyburg Address”. 1908 was the year public speaking was first taught in America by Dale Carnegie.
· In 1963, Martin Luther King called for the end of racism in America when he gave the famous “I Have a Dream” speech. This is one of the most famous speeches in American history. And is so popular that it is used as cell phone ring-tones in some parts of the world even as I type these words.
Technological advancements in the late 20th century as well as the 21st century have given ‘birth’ to sophisticated media sources like the Internet, video-conferencing and telecommunications. These have changed the ‘face’ of public speaking [7].
With the commencement of the first private Internet service in 1980, public speaking received a big boost. The Internet has since been used to reach worldwide Internet users. Video-conferencing, on its part, has now made it possible for people in different geographical locations to see and hear each other as if they are at the same place. (All these devices work together to get success.
The history of public speaking has come a long way from the ancient times till now. Each era of civilization has modified and improved greatly on the art of public speaking.
Types of public speaking
At first we should understand that public speaking belong to the publicistic style.
This style is widespread in speeches on political and social problems of the day, in orations and addresses on solemn occasions such as public weddings, funerals and jubilees, in sermons and debates and also in the speeches of counsel and judges in courts of law. The three main types of speeches are the informative speeches, the special occasion speeches and the persuasive speeches [8].
Informative speeches are intended to share new ideas, build perceptions to give the audience members a new understanding or new appreciation of some topic with which they might be familiar but unaware of recent developments. Informative speeches do not take sides or urge direct action. The purpose is to provide an even-handed or objective view of a topic without drawing conclusions or taking sides or proposing solutions. Information can include providing definitions, history, comparisons, testimony, and narratives that expand on topics that are important to the immediate audience. Most classroom lectures are informative; news reports and programming claim to be objective and informative. In addition, the ethical speaker is careful to avoid distorting information, especially if that information might cause the audience some emotional distress. (Lloyd Bitzer, “The Rhetorical Situation”, Philosophy and Rhetoric 1, 1968)
There are numerous special occasions in life, for example, birthdays, anniversaries, graduations, weddings, christenings, award presentations, retirement dinners, and funerals. In fact, there are so many special occasions that it’s impossible to list them and each of them demands specific speech.
Persuasive speaking takes a less objective view on some topic and asks the audience to take action in support of that view. A speaker will urge the audience to consider why one side of an issue is worth supporting emotionally and logically, and then tell us what action we might take to make that support real. For example, most advertising is persuasive although the logic behind the action is often obscure or fallacious. Persuasion requires providing the audience with enough information to understand the topic under discussion, appealing to the emotions, attitudes and values, and good sense of the listeners to encourage support for the speaker’s stance, and setting up a course of action that is well-suited to audience capabilities, ethical, and a logical outgrowth of the arguments set up within the speech. (Lloyd Bitzer, “The Rhetorical Situation”, Philosophy and Rhetoric 1, 1968)
Stylistic peculiarities of public speaking
All types of public speaking and especially political speeches are characterized by a great number of devices which make them persuasive and expressive. The analysis we have carried out has revealed that the following syntactical stylistic devices are used in political speeches: parallel constructions, repetition, enumeration, antitheses, gradation, polysyndeton, asyndeton, inversion, euphemisms, metaphor, metonymy and rhetorical question.
Let us start with parallel construction.Parallel construction - is the repetition of the same syntactical structure in two or more succeeding sentences. Parallel arrangement serves to bring forth either the similarity or the difference between the objects in question. Parallelism in the political speeches lends a definite rhythm to the narration and due to its sameness it creates a certain background to emphasize the necessary word or phrase. This word or phrase is usually repeated in the parallel constructions. Parallelism is found in the English language as an expressive means. (Lloyd Bitzer, “The Rhetorical Situation”, Philosophy and Rhetoric 1, 1968)
For example:
“They think the atmosphere has become too partisan, the arguments have become too nasty, and the political agendas have become too petty.” (Obama's 2005 Speech on Nuclear Option Reveals Utter Hypocrisy)
“You have enriched my life; you have moved me again and again. You have inspired me. Sometimes when I have been down you have lifted me up. You filled me with new hope for our future and you have reminded me about what makes America so special.” (Barack Obama, Night before the election)
Repetition is the use of same words repeatedly in a speech to drive home a point. Repetition is classified according to compositional patterns. If the repeated word (or phrase) comes at the beginning of two or more consecutive sentences, clauses or phrases, this type of repetition is called anaphora.
The research we have carried out has revealed that one of the most frequently used types of repetition is anaphora.
“ I ask for you to pray for this great nation. I ask for your prayers for leaders from both parties” (George W. Bush: Address in Austin Accepting Election) ссылки на все речи!
“ Against the waste and violence of civil war, we will stand together for peace. Against the merciless terrorists who threaten every nation, we will wage an unrelenting campaign of justice.” (President Bush Speaks at Goree Island in Senegal)
If the repeated word or phrase comes at the end of lines, sentences or paragraphs we have a type of repetition that is called epiphora. The research we have carried out has revealed that epiphora, though not as widely used as anaphora, still remains one of the frequently used stylistic devices in the English language that make the speech more powerful and impressive. (Jess K. Alberts, Thomas K. Nakayama, Judith N. Martin, “Communication in Society, Books a la Carte Edition”, 2010) For instance:
“Real change is not what government can do on its own – real change is when everyone pulls together, comes together, works togethe r, where we all exercise our responsibilities to ourselves, to our families, to our communities and to others.” (David Cameron’s Speech)
If the last word or phrase of one part of an utterance is repeated at the beginning of the next part, thus hooking the two parts together, this compositional pattern is called anadiplosis. The analysis of the speeches we have carried out has revealed that anadiplosis is another widely used device which also has a strong impact on the listeners. This device also helps politicians make their speech more effective. We have come across instances of anadiplosis, for example:
“Let me start by noting, Virginia that this is our last rally. This is the last rally of a campaign that began nearly 2 years ago.” (Barack Obama Speech - Manassas - Virginia - Last Rally of 2008)
“Because Turkey is vital for our economy. Vital for our security ”(David Cameron)
The next peculiarity is synonymic repetition. Synonymic repetition is a peculiar type of repetition consisting in the use of synonymous means to express the same idea. The words repeated are not necessarily synonyms, but become such in the context.
“Just like the sentinels of old, you are never silent; you never grow weary and you never stop standing up for and fighting for Israel.” (Hillary Clinton Speaks at AIPAC Conference)
“The United States and Israel have an incredible bond as allies, friends, as partners.” (Barack Obama)
Then we have enumeration. Enumerationis another expressive means which consists in naming over various qualities or recounting different objects or actions with the purpose of giving a many-sided artistic characterization to the phenomenon described. The words enumerated are homogeneous parts of a sentence. Enumeration makes the speech more impressive and helps the politicians to stress the exact part of the speech. Let us see:
“ Black, white, Hispanic, native American, Asian, Democrats and Republicans, young, old, rich, poor, gay, straight, disabled, not disabled, all of us have something to contribute.” (Barack Obama - Changes come to America)
“At this very moment, as we sit here, women around the world are giving birth, raising children, cooking meals, washing clothes, cleaning houses, planting crops, working on assembly lines, running companies, and running countries. ” (Hillary Rodham Clinton -- United Nations 4th World Conference)
Gradation is an arrangement of sentences or parts of the sentence which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance, emotional tension etc. in the utterance. The research we have carried out has revealed that gradation is one of the most frequently used expressive means, that make political speeches more effective. (Clella Jaffe, Public Speaking, concepts and skills for a diverse society, 4th edition,Wadsworth, 2004)
“You’ve stayed true to your commitment, your passion, your belief that every single child in this country – boy or girl – deserves a chance to live up to his or her God-given potential.” (Hillary Rodham Clinton, Secretary of State Washington, DC January 8, 2010)
Antitheses is based on relative opposition which arises out of objectively contrasting pairs (Oxford dictionary, 7th edition, Oxford university press, 2008)
“ Latino and Asian, rich and poor, young and old– is still irrevocably bound to a tragic past.” (Barack Obama Speech – Chicago)
The next is polysyndeton which is the repetition of the conjunction or some other formal word before each following homogeneous part of the sentence. The repetition of conjunctions lends a definite rhythmical quality to the speeches.
Polysyndeton is another frequently used syntactical stylistic device in the English language. With the help of polysyndeton the politicians stress the simultaneousness of actions, or the close connection of the qualities or phenomena enumerated.
“Few have the right to decide whether or when to get married or become mothers.” (Hillary Clinton)
Asyndeton is a connection between parts of sentences or between the sentences without any formal sign. (Oxford dictionary, 7th edition,Oxford university press, 2008)
“It is also a matter of simple equity and fairness. I’ve been in many places in many parts of the world where the rich, the educated, the well off, the connected, the powerful, the elite had access to every single form of healthcare.” (Hillary Clinton)
Word-order is a crucial syntactical problem in many languages. English language has developed a tolerably fixed word-order namely Subject – Predicate –Object. The question about the position of the elements in a sentence is connected with the problem of emphatic place in it. The most conspicuous places in the sentence are considered to be the first and the last: the first place because the full force of the stress can be felt at the beginning of an utterance and the last place because there is a pause after it. Inversion is used for emphasis or to achieve a certain poetic effect. In the inverted sentence the reserved word is logically stressed. Stylistic inversion aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional coloring to the surface meaning of the utterance. Therefore, a specific intonation pattern is the inevitable satellite of inversion. In public speaking stylistic inversion is used for emphasis or to achieve a certain poetic effect. Stylistic inversion is one of the most widely used syntactical devises in political speeches. (Mathew McKay, Martha Davis, Patrick Fanning, Messages: The communication skills book, Second Edition, New Harbinger Publications, Inc, CA 1996)
“The third youngest person to be elected President was I, so I was relatively young, and I just wanted to try to make sure that people had no questions about my competence when the election was over.” (Bill Clinton’s Interview)
Let us consider euphemismswhich are also often used. A euphemism is a generally innocuous word or expression used in place of one that may be found offensive or suggest something unpleasant. Euphemisms are used for dissimulation, to refer to taboo topics (such as disability, sex, excretion, and death) in a polite way, and to mask profanity. (Oxford dictionary, 7th edition, Oxford university press, 2008). For instance, “Axis of Evil” was a term used by the Bush Administration to describe countries with defense policies and international relations opposed to those of the United States. Here are other examples of euphemisms: ‘ defense ’ = war, ‘ special purpose weapons’ = mass destruction weapons, ‘development areas’ = poor areas).
Another peculiarity is metaphor. The use of metaphor as a part of figurative language aims to help the listener to visualize what is meant by a phrase or expression. Politicians use language to persuade people that their thoughts, aims and ideas are equitable and to make their point clear and vivid to the people. The speaker needs to use various language tools in order to make the message persuasive and comprehensible to the listener. Politicians seek to comply with the emotions, desires and needs of the audience. The use of metaphor is one of the most prominent tools for persuasion and an instrument for propaganda in political rhetorical language. (Metaphors in Politics: A study of the metaphorical personification of America in political discourse)
“In the face of our common dangers, in this winter of our hardship, let us remember these timeless words. With hope and virtue, let us brave once more the icy currents, and endure what storms may come.” (Barack Obama’s inaugural speech)
The next is metonymy. Metonymy is a figure of speech used in rhetoric in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept. Metonymy is linked with politics in the same manner as metaphor. For instance, Mitt Romney uses different metonymical expressions in his speech:
“ Washington is badly broken. I think we recognize that. Washington has not dealt with the problems that we have in this nation.”
The Government of the United States is located in Washington DC. Here, we see a situation where the city which is the location of an institution, stands for that institution. It is broken, it has not dealt with the problems etc. At the time, the Republicans had the majority of seats in the Government, therefore in order to avoid blaming his own party in front of it supporters, Romney chose to use the place for institution metonymy, which puts blame on the Government, however it does not specifically blame the people in charge. (“Metaphors and Metonymy in Politics. Selected Aspects.” Paweł Zieliński)
Rhetoric question is a widely used expressive means too. It is an affirmative or negative statement in the form of the question. It is emotionally colored, it is distinct from an ordinary question which is asked to draw forth some information, the rhetoric question does not require any answer; it serves the purpose of calling the hearer’s attention to a particular point in the speech. (Clella Jaffe, Public Speaking, concepts and skills for a diverse society, 4th edition,Wadsworth, 2004)
“Did I know him to be an occasionally fierce critic of American domestic and foreign policy? Of course. Did I ever hear him make remarks that could be considered controversial while I sat in church? Yes. Did I strongly disagree with many of his political views?” (Barack Obama – Chicago)
The research we have carried out showed that following syntactical stylistic devices and expressive means are used in the public speaking very frequently: anaphora, enumeration, anadiplosis, asyndeton, gradation, inversion, euphemisms, metaphor, metonymy and rhetorical questions do contribute to making political speeches more expressive and persuasive. It proves that good persuasive speaking demands expressive language that keeps the audience involved in the process.
Lexical peculiarity of public speaking
Knowledge about the lexical features of political public speaking English is of great importance to those who are engaged in giving public speeches as well as those who want to improve their English by listening to public speeches. The analysis we have carried out has revealed that the following lexical devices are used in political speeches: direct address to the audience by special formulas, special formulas at the end of the speech, features of colloquial style such as asking the audience questions, calling upon the audience, using only established and generally understood terms, evaluating adjectives, cliché, numerals, abbreviations and words with emotive meaning.
Let us start with direct address to the audience by special formulas such as “Ladies and Gentlemen!”, “My Lords” in the House of Lords, “Mr. Chairman!”, “Honorable Members!”, “Highly esteemed members of the conference!” or,in less formal situation - “Dear Friends!” or, with a more passionate coloring –“My Friends!”). Expressions of direct address can be repeated in the course of the speech and may be expressed differently. For instance: “Mark you!”, “Mind!”). (English for specific purposes, 2007)
“Mr. Chairman, my Lords, Ladies, and Gentlemen, I thank you from my heart for the warmth of this reception, but if I am to proceed I shall not speak of it; I shall try not to think of it.” (Bonar Law’s first speech as Party Leader)
The next is special formulas at the end of the speech to thank the audience for their attention (“Thank you very much”; “Thank you for your time”).
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