1.The term phonetics derived from the Greek words (fo:ne) meaning sound, voice, and (phonetica the science of the voice. Phonetics as a branch of linguistics studies sounds in the broad sense,

1.The term phonetics derived from the Greek words (fo:ne) meaning sound, voice, and (phonetica the science of the voice. Phonetics as a branch of linguistics studies sounds in the broad sense, comprising segmental sounds (vowels and consonants) and prosodic phenomena (pitch, stress, tempo, rhythm, pauses). Human speech sounds are of a complex nature and they may be viewed from four points:articulatory (sound—production), auditory (sound—perception), acoustic and functional (or social and linguistic). These are the aspects of speech sounds. 1. Articulatory phonetics is concerned with the study of sound as a result of the activities of speech organs. It deals with the voice—producing mechanisms and the way we produce sounds, and prosodic phenomena. 2. Auditory (perceptual) phonetics the study of man’s perception of segmental sounds, pitch variation, loudness. 3. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the acoustic aspect of speech sounds. It studies physical properties (frequency, intensity and duration) of speech sounds with the help of experimental (instrumental) methods. 4.Phonology is a purely linguistic branch of phonetics. It deals with the functional aspect of sound phenomena Phonetics as a science is a branch of linguistics. Being a science in its own right, it is at the same time closely connected with other linguistic sciences — grammar, lexicology, stylistics and the history of the language, physiology, biology, physics, pedagogy, psychology, mathematics..	2. Assimilation is a process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sounds becomes fully or partially simi­lar to the adjoining sound. Types of assimilation can be distinguished according to direction, degree of completeness, and degree of stability. Assimilation can affect: 1. The place of abstraction and the active organ of speech; 2. The position of the lips; 3. The work of the vocal cords; 4. The position of the soft palate; 5. The type of release of plosive consonants. Direction of assimilation: 1. Progressive: when some articulatory features of the following sound are changed under the influence of the preceding sound which remains unchanged: bed – beds, plant – plants, stand – stands, keep – keeps; Spain, stock, sky – p, t, k lose their aspiration; sweat, fry, pray, twilight, queen – become less sonorant. The same happens in Russian language: треть, фронт. Regressive: when the following sound influences the articulation of the preceding one: in them, at them, width – interdental “th” influences the preceding alveolar consonant t, d and they become dental (allophones).	3. English Intonation. Every concrete utterance, alongside of its phonemic and syllabic structures has a certain prosodic structure, or intonation. Most Soviet phoneticians define sentence intonation on a perceptual level as a complex unity of four components: (1) voice pitch or speech melody, (2) the stress, (3) the tempo (rate), rhythm and pausation of the utterance, and (4) voice tamber, which enables the speaker to express his thoughts, emotions and attitudes towards the contents of the utterance and the hearer. Now it should be concentrated on the three prosodic com­ponents of intonation, that is pitch, loudness and tempo and on the way they are realized in speech. Each syllable of the speech chain has a special pitch coloring. Some of the syllables have significant moves of tone up and down. Each syllable bears a definite amount of loudness. Pitch movements are inseparably connected with loudness. Together with the tempo of speech they form an intonation pattern which is the basic unit of intonation.
4. All speech sounds have 4 aspects (mech-s): Articulatory – it is the way when the sound – producing mechanism is investigated, that is the way the speech sounds are pronounced. Acoustic – speech sound is a physical phenomenon. It exists in the form of sound waves which are pronounced by vibrations of the vocal cords. Thus each sound is characterized by frequency, certain duration. All these items represent acoustic aspect. Auditory – sound perception aspect. The listener hears the sound, percepts its acoustic features and the hearing mech-m selects from the acoustic infor-n only what is linguis-y important. Functional – every lang. unit performs a certain function in actual speech. Functional aspect deals with these functions.	5-10. In general linguists distinguish several main types of Eng. Intonation. There are 2 basic types: falling inton-n; rising inton-n. Falling int- n is the most common type of standard unemphatic int-n in Eng. It is used for asking and giving infor-n in normal quiet, unemphatic style sounds more categorical confident and convincing than rising information. Falling int-n is used on the last stressed syllable of the sentence in: *statements: we live in Moscow. He doesn’t have a car. *special questions: Where do you live? *commonds(imperative sent): Stop it/sit down? *exclamatory sent-s: What a wonderful surprise? Tag questions: You live here don’t you? Rising intonation in Eng. Is a pretty complicated phenomenon. It can express a number of various emotions, such as: nonfinite, surprise, doubt, interest, politeness, lack of confidence. Rising int-n in England differs from rising int-n of Russian. Standard rising int-n in Eng. first goes down a little and then up, and doesn’t go as high as the rise in Russian does.	6. The classification of English consonant sounds. There are two majorclasses of sounds traditionally distinguished by phoneticians in any language. They are termed consonants and vowels. The distinction is based mainly on auditory effect. Consonants are known to have voice and noise combined, while vowels are sounds consisting of voice only. From the articulatory point of view the difference is due to the work of speech organs. In case of vowels no obstruction is made. In case of consonants various obstructions are made. So consonants are characterized by so-called close articulation, that is by a complete, partial or intermittent blockage of the air-passage by an organ. As a result consonants are sounds which have noise as their indispensable and most defining characteristic.
7. Allophones (or variants) of a certain phoneme are speech sounds which are realizations of one and the same phoneme and which, therefore, cannot distinguish words. Allophones are divided into two groups: typical (or principal) allophones and subsidiary allophones. The most representative allophone is called typical. The principal or typical variant of a phoneme is free from the influence of neighboring speech sounds and other purely phonetic factors, such as absence of stress; According to Professor V.A. Vassilyev, the phoneme is a dialectal unity of three aspects: material, real and objective, abstractional and generalized, functional. The linguistic role of the phoneme is clearly seen from the three linguistic functions of the phoneme, namely, the constitutive, the distinctive, and the recognitive (identificatory) functions. The phonemes in isolation, have no meaning, they are linguistically important, since, in their material form (i.e. in the form of speech sounds) they constitute morphemes, words, all of which are meaningful. Hence, the constitutive function of the phoneme., the phoneme performs the distinctive function, the most important function of the phoneme because phonemes distinguish one word from another etc. The recognitive (identificatory) function of the phoneme consists in making words, phrases and sentences recognizable. Words, phrases and sentences are easily understood when the proper allophones are used in the right places. A phoneme (from the Greek phoneme “a sound uttered) is the smallest segmental unit of sound employed to form meaningful contrasts between utterances.	8. Organs of speech are: nasal cavity, lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, larynx, palate (soft and hard), uvula, tongue (tip, blade, front, back), epiglottis, pharynx, vocal cords, and trachea. The most important organ of speech is the tongue. Pho­neticians divide the tongue into four sections, the part which lies opposite the soft palate is called the back of the tongue; the part facing the hard palate is called the front; the one lying under the teeth ridge is known as the blade and its extremity the t i p. The lips can take up various positions as well. They can be brought firmly together or kept apart neutral, rounded, or pro­truded forward. Active organs of speech are movable and taking an active part in a sound formation: a) Vocal cords which produce voice b) The tongue which is the most flexible movable organ c) The lips affective very considerably the shape of the mouth cavity d) The soft palate with the uvula directing the stream of air either to the mouth or to the nasal cavity	9. The greater degree of special prominence given to one or more syllables as compared with that of the other syllable or syllables in one and the same word is known as word accent. 1)The pronunciation of a syllable may be made more prominent if the syllable is said with greater force of utterance as compared with that of the other syllables of the same word and this is the dynamic word accent. 2) A syllable can be made specially prominent by uttering it on a different pitch level or with a different pitch direction than the other syllable or syllables of the word. This type is called musical word accent. 3) A syllable becomes more prominent when its vowel is pronounced longer than another long vowel or other vowels of the same tamber or historical length in the unstressed position in the same word or in other words of the language. This type is called quantitative accent. 4) A syllable can be more prominent if the vowel is pronounced distinctly and its quality is not obscured. This is the qualitative accent. The majority of British phoneticians distinguish three degrees of word-stress: primary; secondary; weak stress; American descriptivists distinguish also four degrees of word-stress in English, calling and indicating them as follows: (1)primary stress, (2) secondary stress, (3) tertiary stress, and (4) weak stress; two types of word accent are distinguished: (1) fixed and (2) free; languages with fixed word accent the main accent in­variably falls on a syllable which occupies in all the words of the language one and the same position in relation to the beginning or end of a word; In languages with free word accent, the main accent may fall in different words on a syllable in any position in relation to the beginning or end of a word. Unrestricted recessive accent in Modern English falls on the initial syllable, provided it is not a prefix which has no referential meaning now. It is this accent which is observed in the great majority of native English words of this type, e.g. 'father, 'mother, 'wonder, 'husband, etc. Restricted recessive stress falls on the root of native English words with a prefix which has no referential meaning now, e.g. a'mong, be'fore, for'get, with'stand, etc.
11. A syllable is a speech unit consisting of a sound or a sound sequence one of which is heard to be more prominent than the others. It is generally known that a syllable is al­ways formed by a vowel (monophthongs, diphthongs, dipthongoids), sound and may be formed in some languages by a consonant sound as well, usually a sonorant, e.g. the English /m, n,1/ (in /riðm/(rhythm), /lesn/ (lesson, lessen),/taitl/ (title). Vowels are always syllabic and consonants are incapable of forming syllables without vowels. A vowel sound forms the whole of a syllable in, a monophonemic word, when it alone constitutes the word e.g. o-awe. In a polyphonemic word it may also form the whole of a sylla­ble, as in /ә-'gein/ — again. When one or more consonants are pronounced together with a vowel sound in the same syllable, the vowel forms the crest or peak (centre, nucleus) of the syllable. The consonants preceding or follow­ing the crest of the syllable form its slopes. The phonemes constituting the vocalic and consonantal parts of a syllable are termed crest (i.e. syllabic) and slope (i.e. non-syllabic) phonemes. The crest may contain more than one vowel ele­ment, as in a diphthong; in this case the more prominent vowel, the syllabic one, forms the peak of the syllable. If the crest contains only one vocalic element, the latter can only be the peak of the syllable, i.e. in this case the peak and the crest coincide. syllables are classified as open, closed, covered and uncov­ered. A syllable which begins with a consonant sound and ends in a vowel sound (CV) is called covered and open, e. g. / 'nou/ — no. A syllable which begins with a vowel sound and ends in a consonant sound (VC) is called uncovered and closed, e.g. /on/ — on. Syllables of the CVC type are covered and closed, e.g. /mæn/ — man. Syllables of the Vtype are uncovered and open, e.g. /o:/—awe.	12. Phonetics and phonology. Phonetics is the term for the description and classification speech sounds, how sounds are produced, transmitted and received. Phonology is a purely linguistic branch of phonetics. It deals with the functional aspect of sound phenomena. Phonology sets out to discover those segmental and prosodic features that have a differential value in a language, and it establishes the system of phonemes. All the above branches of phonetics are closely connected since the object of their study — speech sounds — is a close unity of acoustic, articulatory, auditory and linguistic aspects. Besides the four branches given above, there are other divisions of phonetics: general phonetics, descriptive (special) phonetics, historical phonetics, comparative phonetics, theoretical phonetics, practical (applied phonetics) etc. Special phonetics is concerned with the study of the phonetic system of a concrete language. When the phonetic system is studied in its static form at a particular period (synchronically), we deal with descriptive phonetics. When the system is studied in its historical development (diachronically) we speak about historical phonetics. General phonetics is concerned with the study of man’s sound—producing possibilities and the functioning of his speech mechanism. It establishes the types of speech sounds which exist in various languages, the way they are produced and the role they play when forming and expressing thoughts. Theoretical phonetics of a particular language applies those theories to the language it analyses. Comparative phonetics is concerned with the comparative study of the phonetic systems of two or more languages, especially kindred ones.	13. In most general terms, intonation as a whole and at least some of its comp-s, perform 3 functions: constitutive, distinctive and recognitive; The constitutive function of the pitch component of intonation throughout the whole of a sentence manifests itself in the fact that each syllable in it has a certain pitch and cannot exist without it. Simultaneously, this constitutive function of pitch manifests itself in the delimitative function, both within a sentence and at its end. *constitutive (it presupposes the integrative function on the one hand when intonation arranges intonation groups into bigger syntactic units: sentences, syntactic wholes and texts) *delimitative (it manifests itself when intonation divides texts, syntactic wholes and sentences units that is intonation groups) *distinctive. It is realized when intonation serves: - to distinguish communicative types of sentences (the communicatively distinctive function); - the actual meaning of a sentences (the semantically distinctive function); - the speaker’s attitude to the contents of the sentence, to the listener and to the topic of conversation (the attitudinally distinctive function); - the style of speech. (the stylistically distinctive function)
14. Branches of theoretical phonetics. Phonetics can also be theoretical and practical or applied. The latter term is used to designate all the prac tical applications of phonetics which are very manifold. All the branches of phonetics are absolutely indispe sable to the teaching of the guages, especially to adult learners pronunciation of foreign lan ehonetics. All the branches of phonetics are closely connected not only with one another, but also with the other branches of linguistics: stylistics, lexicology, grammar. This connection is determined by the fact that language is a system whose parts are inseparably component connected with one another, and therefore the sciences which study these component parts must of necessity be also interconnected. For example, phonology is very closely connected with lexicology and grammar. Phonetics is connected not only with linguistic sciences, but also with many other sciences. For example, the study of intonation is impossible without a good knowledge of logic.	15. The components of intonation and their functions. Most Soviet phoneticians define sentence intonation on a perceptual level as a complex unity of four components: (1) voice pitch or speech melody, (2) the stress, (3) the tempo (rate), rhythm and pausation of the utterance, and (4) voice tamber, which enables the speaker to express his thoughts, emotions and attitudes towards the contents of the utterance and the hearer. Now it should be concentrated on the three prosodic com­ponents of intonation, that is pitch, loudness and tempo and on the way they are realized in speech. Each syllable of the speech chain has a special pitch coloring. Some of the syllables have significant moves of tone up and down. Each syllable bears a definite amount of loudness. Pitch movements are inseparably connected with loudness. Together with the tempo of speech they form an intonation pattern which is the basic unit of intonation. 3 functions:; *constitutive (it presupposes the integrative function on the one hand when intonation arranges intonation groups into bigger syntactic units: sentences, syntactic wholes and texts) *delimitative or recognitive (it manifests itself when intonation divides texts, syntactic wholes and sentences units that is intonation groups) *distinctive. It is realized when intonation serves: - to distinguish communicative types of sentences (the communicatively distinctive function); - the actual meaning of a sentences (the semantically distinctive function); - the speaker’s attitude to the contents of the sentence, to the listener and to the topic of conversation (the attitudinally distinctive function); - the style of speech. (the stylistically distinctive function)	16. The description of speech sounds. Speech sounds are the basic units of any lang. because they make up the material forms of all its morphemes and words. Speech Sounds are divided into two main groups: (1) consonants, and (2) vowels.Consonants: articulation). Thus the description of a consonant will include five kinds of infor­mation: (1) the nature of the air-stream mechanism; (2) the state of the glottis; (3) the position of soft palate (velum); (4) the articulators in­volved; and (5) the nature of the ‘stricture’. The Nature of the Air-stream Mechanism. Most speech sounds and all normal English sounds are made with an egressive pul­monic air-stream, e.g., the air pushed out of the lungs. The State of Glottis. A consonant may be voiced or voice-less, depending upon whether the vocal cords remain wide apart (voice-less) or in a state of vibration (voiced). The Position of the Soft Palate. While describing consonants we have to mention whether they are oral sounds (produced with soft palate raised, thus blocking the nasal passage of air) or nasal sounds (produced with the soft palate lowered). The Articulators Involved. In the description of consonants, we have also to discuss the various articulators involved. The articulators are active (the lower lip and the tongue) and passive (the upper lip, the upper teeth, the roof of the mouth divided into the teeth-ridge, the hard palate, and the soft palate, and the back wall of the throat pharynx). The Nature of Stricture. By the nature of stricture we mean the manner of articulation. This stricture of obstruction made by the or­gans may be total, intermittent, partial, or may merely constitute a nar­rowing sufficient to cause friction. Vowels may be defined with an open approximation without any obstruc­tion, partial or complete, in the air passage. They are referred to as vocoids in phonetics. They can be described in terms of three variables: (1) height of tongue (2) part of the tongue which is raised or lowered (3) lip-rounding. In order to describe the vowels, we usually draw three points in the hori­zontal-axes: front, central and back, referring to the part of the tongue which is the highest. So we have 1) front vowels, during the production of which the front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate. For example, /i, i:, e. æ/ in English as in sit, seat, set, and sat respectively. 2) back vowels, during the production of which the back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate. For example /a:, *, *:, u, u:/ in English as in cart, cot, caught, book and tool respectively. 3) central vowels, during the production of which the central part of the tongue (the part between the front and the back) is raised. For example, /ә, ә:, Λ/ in English as in about, earth and but respectively.
17. Sound alternation. Sound Alternations By sound alternations we mean a way of expressing grammatical categories which consists in changing a sound inside the root. This method appears in Modern English, for example, in nouns, as when the root vowel [ae] of the singular form man is changed into [e] to form the plural men, or similarly the root vowel [au] of mouse is changed into [aı] in mice, and a few more cases of the same kind. This method is much more extensively used in verbs, such as write — wrote — written, sing — sang — sung, meet — met — met, etc. On the whole, vowel alternation does play some part among the means of expressing grammatical categories, though its part in Modern English has been much reduced as compared to Old English. Analytical Types These consist in using a word (devoid of any lexical meaning of its own) to express some grammatical category of another word. There can be no doubt in Modern English about the analytical character of such formations as, e. g., has invited or is invited, or is inviting, or does not invite. The verbs have, be, and do have no lexical meaning of their own in these cases. The lexical meaning of the formation resides in the participle or infinitive following the verb have, be or do. Some doubt has been expressed about the formations shall invite and will invite. There is a view that shall and will have a lexical meaning.1 We will not go into this question now and we will consider shall and will as verbs serving to form the future tense of other verbs. Thus, have, be, do, shall, and will are what we call auxiliary verbs, and as such they constitute a typical feature of the analytical structure of Modern English. While the existence of analytical forms of the English verb cannot be disputed, the existence of such forms in adjectives and adverbs is not nowadays universally recognised. The question whether such formations as more vivid, the most vivid, or, again, more vividly and most vividly are or are not analytical forms of degrees of comparison of vivid and vividly, is controversial. We can only say here that if these formations are recognised as analytical forms of degrees of comparison, the words more and most have to be numbered among the analytical means of morphology.	19. Literary Pronuciation	20. Functions of word stress. Word stress in a language performs three functions. Word stress constitutes a word, it organizes the syllables of a word into a language unit having a definite accentual struc­ture, that is a pattern of relationship among the syllables; a word does not exist without the word stress. Thus, word stress arranges syllable in words thus fulfilling the constitutive function). Word stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual pattern of a word. This function of word stress is known as identificatory (or recognitive). Correct accentuation helps the listener to make the process of communi­cation easier, whereas the distorted accentual pattern of words, misplaced word stresses prevent normal understanding. Word stress alone is capable of differentiating the mean­ing of words or their forms, thus performing its distinctive func­tion. The accentual patterns of words or the degrees of word stress and their positions form oppositions, e.g. 'import — im'port, 'billow — be'low
21. Theories of syllable formation and syllable division. There are several theories which try to explain the mechanism of syllable formation and syllable division. The oldest of them is the so-called expiratory theory (also breath-puff, pressure, or chest-pulse theory). Exponents of expiratory theory hold that each syllable corresponds to a single expiration, so that a word contains as many syllables as there are such expirations (chest pulses) made during its utterance. Each vowel sound is pronounced with fresh expiration. Consequently, vowels are always syllabic. Syllable division is effected, according to the expiratory theory, by the onset of a fresh expiration, i.e. the syllabic boundary is at the point where a fresh expiratory pulse begins or in other words, a syllable begins with the sound in the articulation of which a fresh expiration begins. The relative sonority theory, or the prominence theory, created by the Danish phonetician 0.Jespersen, considers that sounds tend to group themselves according to their sonority. The most sonorous sounds are vowels, the low vowels being more sonorous than the high.. Zhinkin has worked out the so— called loudness theory, which takes into account both the levels. On the perception level the syllable is defined as an arc of actual loudness 1 syllable: it, man, are.. 2 syllable: table, paper.	22. National and regional varieties of English Pronunciation. Today all the English-speaking nations have their own na­tional variants of pronunciation and each of them has peculiar features that distinguish it from other varieties of English. Standard national pronunciation is sometimes called an “orthoepic norm”. Some phoneticians, however, prefer the term “literary pronunciation”. Though every national variant of English has considerable differences in pronunciation, lexis and grammar, they all have much in common which gives us ground to speak of one and the same language — the English language. All the national types of English pronunciation have many features in common because they are of common origin. At present, there may be distinguished the follow­ing types of cultivated English—large regional types, as distinct from local dialects. In the British Isles there are three such types: (1) South­ern English Pronunciation, or RP; (2) Northern English Pronunciation, and (3) Standard Scottish Pronunciation	23. Functional characteristics of syllable. As a phonological unit the syllable performs several functions that may be combined into the main three: constitutive, distinctive and identificatory. The constitutive function of the syllable manifests itself in the fact that the syllable forms higher-level units - words, accentual or rhythmic groups, utterances. Two aspects of this function can be emphasized. The distinctive function of the syllable is to differentiate words and word combinations. It has been mentioned that phonemes exist and function within the syllable. Therefore words are actually differentiated by the syllable as one articulatory and perceptible unit. Syllable division (syllabification) is very important too in distinguishing words and utterances.The distinctive role of syllabification is illustrated by examples like: /naitreit/ “nitrate” - /naitreit./ night-rate, /əneim/ “a name” — /əneim / “an aim”, /wiloun/ “we’ll own” — /wiloun/ “we loan”, / aiskri:m/ “I scream” - /aiskri:m/ “ice cream”, The recognitive (identificatory) function of the syllable is conditioned by the hearer’s perception of syllables as entire phonetic units with their concrete allophones and syllabic boundaries.That is why learners of English should take care not to mispronounce English sounds and not to shift the syllabic boundary as it may cause not only a strong foreign accent, but also misunderstanding on the part of the listener.

24. The use of Phonetics and it’s connection with other social sciences. So our further point should be made in connection with the relationship between phonetics and social sciences. Language is not an isolated phenomenon; it is a part of society. No branch of linguistics can be studied without taking into consideration at least the study of other aspects of society. In the past two decades we have seen the development of quite distinct interdisciplinary subjects, such as sociolinguistics (and sociophonetics correspondingly), psycholinguistics, mathematical linguistics and others. As their titles suggest, they are studied from two points of view and thus require knowledge of both. Sociophonetics studies the ways in which pronunciation functions in society. It is interested in the ways in which phonetic structures vary in response to different social functions. Society here is used in its broadest sense, it includes such phenomena as nationality, regional and social groups, age, gender, different situations of speaking - talking to equals, superiors, on the “job”, when we are trying to persuade, inform, agree and so on. The aim of sociophonetics is to correlate phonetic variations with situational factors. It’s obvious that these data are vital for language learners who are to observe social norms and to accommodate to different situations they find themselves in.One more example of interdisciplinary overlap is the relation of linguistics to psychology. Psycholinguistics covers an extremely broad area, from acoustic phonetics to language pathology, and includes such problems as acquisition of language by children, memory, attention, speech perception, second-language acquisition and so on. Phonosemantics studies the relations between the sound structure of a word and its meaning. There is some data proving that the sounds that constitute a word have their own “inner” meaning, which causes certain associations in the listener’s mind. For example, close vowels produce the effect of “smallness”, and voiceless consonants sound more “unpleasant” and “rude” than their voiced counterparts, etc. Some sounds are associated with certain colours. These data may be helpful in teaching, for example, “tying” together the sound structure of a word and its meaning, thus facilitating the process of memorising new words.Scientists have always been interested how children acquire their own language without being taught. They hope that these data might be useful in teaching grown-up people a foreign language, too.Pragmalinguistics is a comparatively new science, which studies what linguistic means and ways of influence on a hearer to choose in order to bring about certain effects in the process of communication.	25. Phonetics as a science. Methods of investigation. The term phonetics derived from the Greek words (fo:ne) meaning sound, voice, and (phonetica the science of the voice. Phonetics as a branch of linguistics studies sounds in the broad sense, comprising segmental sounds (vowels and consonants) and prosodic phenomena (pitch, stress, tempo, rhythm, pauses). Human speech sounds are of a complex nature and they may be viewed from four points:articulatory (sound—production), auditory (sound—perception), acoustic and functional (or social and linguistic). These are the aspects of speech sounds. 1. Articulatory phonetics is concerned with the study of sound as a result of the activities of speech organs. It deals with the voice—producing mechanisms and the way we produce sounds, and prosodic phenomena. 2. Auditory (perceptual) phonetics the study of man’s perception of segmental sounds, pitch variation, loudness. 3. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the acoustic aspect of speech sounds. It studies physical properties (frequency, intensity and duration) of speech sounds with the help of experimental (instrumental) methods. 4.Phonology is a purely linguistic branch of phonetics. It deals with the functional aspect of sound phenomena Phonetics as a science is a branch of linguistics. Being a science in its own right, it is at the same time closely connected with other linguistic sciences — grammar, lexicology, stylistics and the history of the language, physiology, biology, physics, pedagogy, psychology, mathematics..	26. The system of English vowels and consonants.
27. Phonetics as a branch of linguistics. Phonetics as a science is a branch of linguistics. Being a science in its own right, it is at the same time closely connected with other linguistic sciences — grammar, lexicology, stylistics and the history of the language, since the phonetic system of a language, its vocabulary and grammar constitute one indivisible whole. It is also closely interconnected with physiology, biology, physics, pedagogy, psychology, mathematics, cybernetics etc.	28. Organs of speech and their functions. Organs of speech are: nasal cavity, lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, larynx, palate (soft and hard), uvula, tongue (tip, blade, front, back), epiglottis, pharynx, vocal cords, and trachea. The most important organ of speech is the tongue. Pho­neticians divide the tongue into four sections, the part which lies opposite the soft palate is called the back of the tongue; the part facing the hard palate is called the front; the one lying under the teeth ridge is known as the blade and its extremity the t i p. The lips can take up various positions as well. They can be brought firmly together or kept apart neutral, rounded, or pro­truded forward. Active organs of speech are movable and taking an active part in a sound formation: a) Vocal cords which produce voice b) The tongue which is the most flexible movable organ c) The lips affective very considerably the shape of the mouth cavity d) The soft palate with the uvula directing the stream of air either to the mouth or to the nasal cavity	29. Classification of Phonetic Styles. The classification of functional phonetic styles Intonational style – a system of interrelated intonational means which is used in a social sphere and serves s definite aim of communication. There is no universally recognized classification of styles. Vinogradov distinguishes 3 styles: 1) Colloqual (COMMUNICATION) 2) Informing (scientific styles are included) 3) Emotive (publicistic, belletrestyle). This classification was critisized. There are 2 next marginal layers: formal – suggests careful articulation of styles, relatively slow speed of the pronouncing informal – everyday communication, rapid, colloquial, conversational Stylistic use of intonation: 1) Informational - in press reporting, educational descriptive texts. May be represented in monologues, dialogues, polylogues. Phonostylistic characteristics: Loudness normal or increased; pauses are rather long; rhythm is stable, properly organized; falling tones on the semantic centres, falling-rsisng or rising in the initial intonation groups 2) Academic (scientific)- style of lectures (conferences, seminars). It is determined by the purpose of communication as the speaker*s aim is to attract the listener*s attention, to establish close contacts with the audience and to direct the public attention to the message carried in the contents of the text. Phonostylistic characteristics: Loudness increased; pauses are rather long; rhythm is properly organized; high proportion of compound terminal tones (high fall + low rise, fall – rise, rise-fall-rise), a great number of high categoric falls 3) Publicistic (oratorial)-this term serves for many kinds of oratorial activities (especially this style uses in political speeches). Phonostylistic characteristics: Loudness enormously increased; pauses are definitely long between the passages; rhythm is properly organized; tones mostly emphatic, especially emotionally underlined semantic centres, in non-final intonational groups falling-rising tones are frequent 4) Declamatory (artistic)- this is the style of declamation. This is a highly emotional and expressive intonational style, that is why it needs special training. Attitudinal, volitional and intellectual functions of intonation are of primary importance here and serve to appeal to the mind, will and feelings of the listener. This style can be heard on the stage, on the screen, in a TV studio, thus we see that it is always a written form of the language read aloud or recited. Phonostylistic characteristics: Loudness varied according to the size of the audience and to the emotional setting; pauses are long especially between the passages, prolonged emphatic pauses are used to underline the emphasis; rhythm is properly organized; common use of categoric low and high falls in final and initial intination groups and on semantic centres 5) Conversational (familiar) - this kind of English is a means for everyday communication, heard in natural conversational interaction between speakers. This style occurs mainly in informal external and internal relationships in speech of relatives, friends, well - acquainted people and so on. So this is spontaneous, colloquial, informal, everyday speech.
30. Accommodation affecting the lip position. In accommodation the accommodated sound does not change its main phonemic features and is pronounced as a variant of the same phoneme slightly modified under the influence of a neighbouring sound. [1, c. 74] Lip positionmay be affected by the accommodation, the in­terchange of “consonant + vowel type”. 1. Labialisation of conso­nants is traced under the influence of the neighbouring back vowels, e.g. pool [ pu ːl], moon [ mu ːn], rude [ ru ːd], soon [ su ːn], who [ hu ː], cool [ ku ːl], etc. 2. It is possible to speak about the spread lip position of conso­nants followed or preceded by front vowels [i:], [ɪ], e.g. tea [ tiː ], beat [b iːt ]; meet [m iːt ], team [ tiː m]; sit [ sɪ t], miss [m ɪs ].	31. Conversational Style. Conv.style are one of the most complex forms of human behavior. Clearly, a conversational consists of more than verbal language. In a conv-n we do not just listen to words, derive the meaning consciously or unconsciously from a number of other communicative system. So, the study conver-l inter-s means to study some of the “rules” of non-verbal behave-r in relation to particular cultures and societies and also to study the linguistic rules governing the talks.	32. English is a language in which vowels of more or less full formation occur not only in stressed, but also in unstressed syllables. The English vowels occurring in unstressed syllables also form a definite system, called unstressed vocalism,which also requires a phonemic analysis, although not such a detailed one as that of the stressed vocalism of English. A vowel in an unstressed syllable is shorter, weaker, less distinct, i.e. it is reduced, or obscured. The core of the unstressed vocalism of English is formed by the neutral vowel phoneme /ə/, which has several allophones, different varieties of the neutral vowel sound known in linguistics as schwa-vowels. Not all English vowels are opposed to the neu­tral vowel phoneme; the most common opposition is /ə — i/, e.g. armour — army, officers — offices, accept — except, allu­sion — illusion. The phoneme /ə/ may also be opposed to the diphthong /oυ/, e.g. temper — tempo, solar — solo.
33-8.	34.	35. Articulatory phonetics is concerned with the study of sound as a result of the activities of speech organs. It deals with the voice—producing mechanisms and the way we produce sounds, and prosodic phenomena. Articulatory phonetic studies the physiology of speech and the mechanism of sound production. It studies the movements of the speech organs and their coordination in the production of sounds. So, it deals with the work of speech apparatus, its organs and their functions.

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