Electrical power is the most versatile, because it can be readily generated from other sources (e.g., fossil fuel, hydroelectric, solar, and nuclear) and it can be readily converted into other types

Electrical power is the most versatile, because it can be readily generated from other sources (e.g., fossil fuel, hydroelectric, solar, and nuclear) and it can be readily converted into other types of power (e.g., mechanical, hydraulic, and pneumatic) to perform useful work. In addition, electrical energy can be stored in high-performance, long-life batteries.

The actions performed by automated systems are generally of two types: (1) processing and (2) transfer and positioning. In the first case, energy is applied to accomplish some processing operation on some entity. The process may involve the shaping of metal, the molding of plastic, the switching of electrical signals in a communication system, orthe processing of data in a computerized information system. All these actions entail the use of energy to transform the entity (e.g., the metal, plastic, electrical signals, or data) from one state or condition into another more valuable state or condition. The second type of action - transfer and positioning - is most readily seen in automated manufacturing systems designed to perform work on a product. In these cases, the product must generally be moved (transferred) from one location to another during the series of processing steps. At each processing location, accurate positioning of the product is generally required. In automated communications and information systems, the terms transfer and positioning refer to the movement of data (or electrical signals) among various processing units and the delivery of information to output terminals (printers, video display units, etc.) for interpretation and use by humans.

Text С Feedback

Essential to all automatic-control mechanisms is the feedback principle, which enables a designer to endow a machine with the capacity for self­correction. A feedback loop is a mechanical, pneumatic, or electronic device that senses or measures a physical quantity such as position, temperature, size, or speed, compares it with a preestablished standard, and takes whatever preprogrammed action is necessary to maintain the measured quantity within the limits of the acceptable standard. The feedback principle has been used for centuries. An outstanding early example is the flyball governor, invented in 1788 by the Scottish engineer James Watt to control the speed of the steam engine. In this device a pair of weighted balls is suspended from arms attached to a spindle, which is connected by gears to the output shaft of the engine. At the top of the spindle the arms are linked by a lever with a valve that regulates the

steam input. As the engine speeds up beyond the desired rate, causing the spindle to rotate faster, the flyballs are driven upward by centrifugal force. The action of the flyballs partly closes the input valve, reducing the amount of steam delivered to the engine. The common household thermostat is another example of a feedback device. In manufacturing and production, feedback loops require that acceptable limits or tolerances be established for the process to be performed; that these physical characteristics be measured and compared with the set of limits; and, finally, that the feedback system be capable of correcting the process so that the measured items comply with the standard. Through feedback devices, machines can start, stop, speed up, slow down, count, inspect, test, compare, and measure. These operations are commonly applied to a wide variety of production operations that can include milling, boring, bottling, and refining,

Words and expressions

feedback principle

to endow

feedback loop

flyball governor

arm

spindle

shaft

lever

milling

boring

bottling

refining обратная связь; обратное питание

обеспечивать

контур обратной связи

центробежный маховик-регулятор

рычаг, коромысло; траверса

шпиндель; палец

вал; стержень

балансир; коромысло

фрезерование; измельчение

бурение; расточка

разливка

очистка; рафинирование

Exercise 1

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. By means of what principle a machine can be provided with the capacity for self-correction?

2. What is the principle of a feedback loop operation?

3. When was the feedback principle first introduced?

4. Who was the inventor of the flyball governor and what was it used for?

5. What was the principle of flyballs operation in James Watt’s stem engine?

6. Can we consider a household thermostat as a feed back device?

7. What functions can be performed by machine using feedback devices?

8. In what production operations are feedback devices used?

Exercise 2

Составьте предложения, используя данные выражения:

Automatic-control mechanism — feedback principle — mechanical device - pneumatic device - electronic device - to measure a physical quantity - a preestablished standard - to take a preprogrammed action - limits of the acceptable standard - limits or tolerances - physical characteristics - wide variety of production operations.

Exercise 3

Переведите на русский язык следующие предложения:

1. Feedback controls are widely used in modern automated systems.

2. A feedback control system consists of five basic components.

3. The input to the system is the reference value, or set point, for the system output.

4. The sensing elements are the measuring devices used in the feedback loop to monitor the value of the output.

5. This device consists of two metal strips joined along their lengths.

6. The two metals possess different thermal expansion coefficients.

7. Bimetallic strip is capable of measuring temperature.

8. There are many different kinds of sensors used in feedback control systems for automation.

9. The purpose of the controller and actuating devices in the feedback

system is to compare the measured output value with the reference input value

and to reduce the difference between them.

10. In general, the controller and actuator of the system are the

mechanisms by which changes in the process are accomplished to influence the output variable.

11. These mechanisms are usually designed specifically for the system

and consist of devices such as motors, valves, solenoid switches, piston

cylinders, gears, power screws, pulley systems, chain drives, and other mechanical and electrical components.

12.The switch connected to the bimetallic strip of the thermostat is the controller and actuating device for the heating system.

13.When the output (room temperature) is below the set point, the switch turns on the heater.

14. When the temperature exceeds the set point, the heat is turned off.

Exercise 4

Текст на самостоятельный перевод:

Computer Use

The creation of the computer has greatly facilitated the use of feedback loops in manufacturing processes. Computers and feedback loops have promoted the development of numerically controlled machines (the motions of which are controlled by punched paper or magnetic tapes) and machining centers (machine tools that can perform several different machining operations). More recently, the introduction of microprocessors and computer combinations have made possible the development of computer-aided design and computer- aided manufacture (CAD and CAM) technology. When using these systems a designer draws a part and indicates its dimensions with the aid of a special light pen on a television like cathode-ray tube computer display screen. After the sketch has been completed to the satisfaction of the designer, the computer automatically generates a magnetic or punched tape that directs a machining center in machining the part.

Another development that has further increased the use of automation is that of flexible manufacturing systems (FMS). FMS extends automation to companies in which small production runs do not make full automation economically feasible. A computer is used to monitor and govern the entire operation of the factory, from scheduling each step of production to keeping track of parts inventories and tool use. Automation has also had an influence on areas of the economy other than manufacturing. Small computers are used in systems called word processors, which are rapidly becoming a standard part of the modem office. This technology combines a small computer with a cathode- ray display screen, a typewriter keyboard, and a printer. It is used to edit texts, to type form letters tailored to the recipient, and to manipulate mailing lists and other data. The system is capable of performing many other tasks that increase office productivity.

Text D Automation in Industry

Many industries are highly automated or use automation technology in some part of their operation. In communications and especially in the telephone industry, dialing, transmission, and billing are all done automatically. Railroads too are controlled by automatic signaling devices, which have sensors that detect

cars passing a particular point. In this way the movement and location of trains can be monitored. Not all industries require the same degree of automation. Agriculture, sales, and some service industries are difficult to automate. The agriculture industry may become more mechanized, especially in the processing and packaging of foods; however, in many service industries such as supermarkets, for example, a checkout counter may be automated and the shelves or supply bins must still be stocked by hand. Similarly, doctors may consult a computer to assist in diagnosis, but they must make the final decision and prescribe therapy.

The concept of automation is evolving (developing; growing) rapidly, partly because the applications of automation techniques vary both within a plant or industry and also between industries. The oil and chemical industries, for example, have developed the continuous-flow method of production, owing to the nature of the raw materials used. In a refinery, crude oil enters at one point and flows continuously through pipes in cracking, distillation, and reaction devices as it is being processed into such products as gasoline and fuel oil. An array (range, group, selection) of automatic-control devices governed by microprocessors and coordinated by a central computer is used to control valves, heaters, and other equipment, thereby regulating both the flow and reaction rates.

In the steel, beverage, and canned food industries, on the other hand, some of the products are produced in batches. For example, a steel furnace is charged (loaded with the ingredients), brought up to heat, and a batch of steel ingots produced. In this phase very little automation is evident. These ingots, however, may then be processed automatically into sheet or structural shapes by being squeezed through a series of rollers until the desired shape is achieved.

The automobile and other consumer product industries use the mass production techniques of step-by-step manufacture and assembly. This technique approximates the continuous-flow concept but involves transfer machines; thus, from the point of view of the auto industry, transfer machines are essential to the definition of automation.

Each of these industries uses automated machines in all or part of its manufacturing processes. As a result, each industry has a concept of automation that fits its particular production needs. More examples can be found in almost every phase of commerce. The widespread use of automation and its influence on daily life provides the basis for the concern expressed by many about the influence of automation on society and the individual.

Words and expressions

dialing

billing

checkout counter

to evolve cracking

distillation an array to coordinate

valve

heater

batch

to be charged

ingot

evident

step-by-step manufacture

набор номера составление счетов касса (the person who performs the

check-out; also cashier) развиваться (to develop; to grow)

крекинг (однопроходный

выход

бензина)

перегонка; ректификация ряд (range; group; selection) координировать; согласовывать; устанавливать правильные пропорции

клапан; вентиль; задвижка; заслонка; золотник; распределительный кран нагревательный прибор; нагреватель

подогреватель; калорифер партия; производственная серия

быть загруженным (to be loaded with the ingredients) слиток; болванка очевидный (obvious) постепенное, ступенчатое производство

Exercise 1

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. Are many industries use automation technology in their production process and to what extend this technology is used?

2. What operations are automated in communications and telephone industry?

3. By means of what automatic signaling devices railroads are controlled?

4. What industries require less degree of automation?

5. Can we state that the concept of automation is developing rapidly?

6. How can you explain the continuous-flow method of production, and in what fields of industry this method is used?

7. Can valves, heaters and similar equipment be operated automatically? If yes, how?

8. How automation is used in certain stages of steel industry?

9. How do you understand step-by-step manufacture and assembly?

10. What is the main principle of the continuous-flow concept in industry?

11. What industries use automated machines in all or part of their manufacturing processes?

12. Do you think that each industry has a concept of automation that fits its particular production needs? Give examples of full automated and semi­automated productions.

13. Can you give examples of automation technologies used in commerce?

14. Do you think that the widespread use of automation influences on individual’s and society’s daily life?

15. Does automation provide the basis for the concern of society and the individual?

Exercise 2

Заполните пропуски недостающими no смыслу словами, используя текст:

1. Railroads too are controlled by... signaling devices.

2. The... industry may become more mechanized, especially in the processing and packaging of foods.

3. In beverage and canned food industries some of the products are produced in....

4. When a steel furnace is charged and brought up to heat a very little.... is needed.

5. The ingots are processed... into sheet or structural shapes.

6. The automobile and other consumer product industries use the mass production... of step-by-step manufacture and assembly.

7. Most of the modem industries use... machines in all or parts of their manufacturing processes.

8. Each industry has a concept of... that fits its particular production

needs.

9. More examples of... can be found in almost every phase of commerce.

10. The widespread use of automation and its... on daily life provides the concern expressed by many about the influence of automation on society and the individual.

Exercise 3

Соответствуют ли данные предложения содержанию текста:

1. All industries are highly automated or use automation technology in some part of their operation.

2. In communications and especially in the telephone industry, dialing, transmission, and billing are all done manually.

3. Railroads are controlled by automatic signaling devices.

4. Agriculture, sales, and some service industries are easy to automate.

5. Doctors consult a computer to assist in diagnosis and computer also make the final decision and prescribe therapy.

6. The concept of automation is growing rapidly.

7. In petrochemical industry an array of automatic-control devices are used to control valves, heaters, and other equipment.

8. The automobile industry uses the mass production techniques of step- by-step manufacture and assembly.

9. In auto industry the volume of power consumed is essential to the definition of automation.

10. The widespread use of automation doesn’t influence our daily life.

Exercise 4

Используя текст, составьте высказывания с данными словами и выражениями:

Automation technology - to be done automatically - automatic signaling device - degree of automation - to be difficult to automate - to consult a computer - concept of automation - automation techniques - canned food industry - the mass production technique - step-by-step manufacture - the continuous-flow concept - production need - influence of automation.

Exercise 5

Кратко передайте содержание каждого абзаца.

Exercise 6

Выделите пять основных идей текста.

Exercise 7

Составьте предложения, используя данные выражения:

The increased use of automatic devices - mechanized production line programmed command - automatic feedback control - to operate without human intervention - the development of technology - automation technology - principles and theory of operation.

Exercise 8

Переведите на русский язык следующие предложения:

1. Mechanization is often used to refer to the simple replacement of human labor by machines.

2. Automation generally implies the integration of machines into a self- governing system.

3. Automation has revolutionized those areas in which it has been introduced.

4. There is scarcely an aspect of modern life that has been unaffected by automation.

5. The term automation was coined in the automobile industry about 1946 to describe the increased use of automatic devices and controls in mechanized production lines.

6. The origin of the word is attributed to D.S. Harder, an engineering manager at the Ford Motor Company.

7. In general usage, automation can be defined as a technology concerned with performing a process by means of programmed commands combined with automatic feedback control to ensure proper execution of the instructions.

8. The automatic system is capable of operating without human intervention.

9. Advanced systems represent a level of capability and performance that surpass in many ways the abilities of humans to accomplish the same activities.

Exercise 9

Текст на самостоятельный перевод:

Automation and society

Over the years, the social merits of automation have been argued by labour leaders, business executives, government officials, and college

professors. The biggest controversy has focused on how automation affects employment. There are other important aspects of automation, including its effect on productivity, economic competition, education, and quality of life. These issues are explored here.

Impact on the individual

Nearly all industrial installations of automation, and in particular robotics, involve a replacement of human labor by an automated system. Therefore, one of the direct effects of automation in factory operations is the dislocation of human labor from the workplace. The long-term effects of automation on employment and unemployment rates are debatable. Most studies in this area have been controversial and inconclusive. Workers have indeed lost jobs through automation, but population increases and consumer demand for the products of automation have compensated for these losses. Labor unions have argued, and many companies have adopted the policy, that workers displaced by automation should be retrained for other positions, perhaps increasing their skill levels in the process. This argument succeeds so long as the company and the economy in general are growing at a rate fast enough to create new positions as the jobs replaced by automation are lost.

Of particular concern for many labor specialists is the impact of industrial robots on the work force, since robot installations involve a direct substitution of machines for humans, sometimes at a ratio of two to three humans per robot. The opposing argument within the United States is that robots can increase productivity in American factories, thereby making these firms more competitive and ensuring that jobs are not lost to overseas companies. The effect of robotics on labor has been relatively minor, because the number of robots in the United States is small compared with the number of human workers. As of the early 1990s, there were fewer than 100,000 robots installed in American factories, compared with a total work force of more than 100 million persons, about 20 million of whom work in factories.

Automation affects not only the number of workers in factories but also the type of work that is done. The automated factory is oriented toward the use of computer systems and sophisticated programmable machines rather than manual labor. Greater emphasis is placed on knowledge-based work and technical skill rather than physical work. The types of jobs found in modern factories include more machine maintenance, improved scheduling and process optimization, systems analysis, and computer programming and operation. Consequently, workers in automated facilities must be technologically proficient

to perform these jobs. Professional and semiprofessional positions, as well as traditional labor jobs, are affected by this shift in emphasis toward factory automation.

Unit 2 Text A Automobile Industry

Automobile industry is the industry and area of commerce in which automobile models are planned, designed, manufactured, and marketed. The automobile industry is concerned with profits and competition; with consumer demands for styling, safety, and efficiency; and with labor relations and manufacturing efficiency.

History

After the steam engine was invented in the early 17th century, various attempts were made to apply this source of power to self-propelled road vehicles. Early efforts were unsuccessful, except for those that produced interesting toys such as the machine developed about 1680 by the English scientist Sir Isaac Newton, which was propelled by the back pressure of a jet of steam directed to the rear. The first successful self-propelled road vehicle was a steam automobile invented in 1770 by the French engineer Nicolas Joseph Cugnot. It was designed to transport artillery, and it ran on three wheels. In Great Britain the inventors William Murdock and James Watt constructed another form of automobile in 1781, and in 1784 they produced a model of a wagon that used the power of a high-pressure, noncondensing steam engine. The British inventor William Symington in 1786 built a working model of a so- called steam carriage.

The 19th Century

The first automobile to carry passengers was built by the British inventor Richard Trevithick in 1801. In December of that year, Trevithick conducted a successful road test of his vehicle, which carried several passengers, on an open road near his native town, Illogan. His success was due to the greater efficiency and smaller size of his power unit, which was the first to have the piston moved by steam at high pressure. Earlier power units had pistons that moved as a result of atmospheric pressure against the vacuum produced by the condensation of steam. The quantity of water required for this condensation necessarily

precluded the use of these earlier engines for vehicles. Their bulk and weight relative to the power developed, moreover, were such that they could not have moved themselves if mounted on a vehicle. Later, Trevithick successfully embodied his power plant in a locomotive for rails. He is considered the founder of both road and rail automotive transportation. In the United States, the inventor Oliver Evans obtained the first patent on a steam carriage in 1789. In 1803 he built a self-propelled steam dredge, which is regarded as the first self- propelled vehicle to operate over American roads. Improvement in the steam engine and in vehicles continued, especially in England, and by 1830 steam coaches were in regular daily use to transport passengers over English roads. Starting in 1831, however, restrictive legislation in England forced the steam coaches off the roads, and by 1860 development of self-propelled vehicles virtually ceased. In France and Germany, meanwhile, attention turned to the development of the internal-combustion engine.

Words and expressions Self-propelled road vehicles

carriage —

to preclude —

to embody

steam dredge -

internal-combustion engine -

Exercise 1

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. How do you understand the term “Automobile industry”?

2. When was the steam engine invented?

3. Did inventors in the early 17th century try to apply power of steam engine to self-propelled road vehicles?

4. When and by whom was the first successful self-propelled road vehicle invented?

5. What can you say about the automobile of British inventors William Murdock and James Watt constructed in 1781?

6. When was the working model of a so-called steam carriage of the British inventor William Symington built?

7. Who was the inventor of the first automobile to carry passengers?

8. What was the difference of Trevithicks’ power unit from earlier power units?

9. Who is considered the founder of both road and rail automotive transportation?

10. When did the development of self-propelled vehicles practically stop?

11. What countries turned their attention to the development of the inlernal-combustion engine?

Exercise 2

Заполните пропуски недостающими no смыслу словами, используя текст:

1. The steam engine was... in the early 17th century.

2. The machine, which was propelled by the back pressure of a jet of steam directed to the rear was developed about 1680 by....

3. The French engineer Nicolas Joseph Cugnot invented the first

successful self-propelled......... in 1770.

4. The British inventor William Symington in 1786 built a working

model of a............

5. The British inventor Richard Trevithick in 1801 built the first automobile to carry....

6........... is considered the founder of both road and rail automotive

transportation.

7. In the United States, the first patent on a steam carriage in 1789 was

obtained by..........

8. In 1803 the inventor Oliver Evans... a self-propelled steam dredge which is regarded as the first self-propelled vehicle to operate over American roads.

9. By 1830 steam... were in regular daily use to transport passengers over English roads.

Exercise 3

Соответствуют ли данные предложения содержанию текста:

1. Automobile industry is the service industry aimed at providing transportation facilities to the clients.

2. Before the invention of the steam engine in the early 17th century a lot of attempts were made to motorize self-propelled road vehicles.

3. The machine developed by the English scientist James Watt was propelled by the back pressure of a jet of steam directed to the rear.

4. The first successful self-propelled road vehicle was a steam automobile invented in 1770 by Sir Isaac Newton.

5. In Great Britain the inventors William Murdock and James Watt produced a model of a wagon that used the power of a high-pressure steam engine.

6. The first automobile to carry passengers was built by the British inventor William Murdock.

7. In December 1801 Trevithick conducted a successful road test of his vehicle, which carried several passengers.

8. The success of Trevithick was due to the greater efficiency and smaller size of his power unit.

9. By 1830 steam coaches were in regular daily use to transport passengers over Russian roads.

Exercise 4

Используя текст, составьте высказывания с данными словами и выражениями:

Area of commerce - profits and competition — labor relations — manufacturing efficiency - source of power - road test - greater efficiency - bulk and weight - to obtain the patent - to be in regular use - to transport passengers - restrictive legislation.

Exercise 5

Кратко передайте содержание каждого абзаца.

Exercise 6

Выделите пять основных идей текста.

Exercise 7

Составьте предложения, используя данные выражения:

Commercial transportation - manufacture and use - to be capable of carrying six persons - the most successful era - to have little future - widespread enthusiasm - speed record - to be in running order.

Exercise 8

Переведите на русский язык следующие предложения:

1. The invention of the steam engine had a potential application for individual and commercial transportation.

2. The problem in steam vehicle development was to reduce sufficiently the size of the engine.

3. Steam buses were running in Paris about 1800.

4. Oliver Evans of Philadelphia ran an amphibious steam dredge through the streets of that city in 1805.

5. English inventors were active, and by the 1830s the manufacture and use of steam road carriages was flourishing.

6. Sir Goldsworthy Gurney based his design upon an unusually efficient boiler.

7. He made trips as long as 84 miles in a running time of 9 hours 30 minutes and once recorded a speed of 17 miles per hour.

8. Gurney equipment was used on a regularly scheduled Gloucester- Cheltenham service of four round-trips daily.

9. The equipment was noisy, smoky, destructive of roadways, and

admittedly dangerous.

10. Many passengers had been carried by steam carriage before the railways had accepted their first paying passenger.

11. The most successful era of the steam coaches in Britain was the 1830s.

12. By 1840 it was clear that the steam carriages had little future.

13. Some of the steam automobiles could carry as few as two people and were capable of speeds of 20 miles per hour.

14. The public climate over steam automobiles remained unfriendly.

Exercise 9

Переведите на английский язык:

1. Автомобильная промышленность занимается разработкой, изготовлением и реализацией автомобилей.

2. Автомобильная промышленность направлена на получение прибыли и находится в постоянной конкурентной борьбе.

3. Потребительский спрос на автомобили связан с модельным рядом, безопасностью и эффективностью предлагаемого автомобиля.

4. Данное транспортное средство было разработано для транспортировки пассажиров на дальние расстояния.

5. В конце XVIII-ro века в Великобритании был изобретен автомобиль, который использовал энергию пара под высоким давлением.

6. Ученые проектного института провели успешное дорожное испытание нового транспортного средства.

7. Эффективность двигателя и его небольшие габариты явились решающими факторами в успехе продаж данного автомобиля.

8. Поршень данного двигателя приводится в движение паром высокого давления.

9. Применение паровых двигателей в транспортных средствах является, по ряду причин, не эффективным.

10. Усовершенствование двигателя внутреннего сгорания продолжается и на сегодняшний день.

Текст на самостоятельный перевод:

Machine-powered transportation

The rise of the automobile

The invention of the steam engine had a potential application for individual, as well as commercial, transportation. In 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot designed a small steam engine light enough to be borne on a land vehicle, a tricycle that he intended as a prime mover for French artillery pieces. The problem in steam vehicle development was to reduce sufficiently the size of the engine so its power could be used in transporting something other than itself.

The age of steam

Before any internal-combustion engine had run, Cugnot's successors were at work, notably in England, although the first post-Cugnot steam carriage appears to have been that built in Amiens, Fr., in 1790. Steam buses were running in Paris about 1800. Oliver Evans of Philadelphia ran an amphibious steam dredge through the streets of that city in 1805. Less well known were Nathan Read of Salem, Mass., and Apollo Kinsley of Hartford, Conn., both of whom ran steam vehicles during the period 1790-1800.

English inventors were active, and by the 1830s the manufacture and use of steam road carriages was flourishing. James Watt's foreman, William Murdock, ran a model steam carriage on the roads of Cornwall in 1784, and Robert Fourness showed a working three-cylinder tractor in 1788. Watt was opposed to the use of steam engines for such purposes; his low-pressure steam engine would have been too bulky for road use in any case, and all the British efforts in steam derived from the earlier researches of Thomas Savery and Thomas Newcomen.

Richard Trevithick developed Murdock's ideas, and at least one of his carriages, with driving wheels 10 feet in diameter, ran in London. Sir Goldsworthy Gurney, the first commercially successful steam carriage builder, based his design upon an unusually efficient boiler. He was not, however, convinced that smooth wheels could grip a roadway, and so he arranged propulsion on his first vehicle by iron legs digging into the road surface. His second vehicle weighed only 3,000 pounds and was said to be capable of carrying six persons. He made trips as long as 84 miles in a running time of 9 hours 30 minutes and once recorded a speed of 17 miles per hour.

Gurney equipment was used on a regularly scheduled Gloucester- Cheltenham service of four round-trips daily that at times did the nine miles in

45 minutes. Between February 27 and June 22, 1831, steam coaches ran 4,000 miles on this route, carrying some 3,000 passengers. The equipment was noisy, smoky, destructive of roadways, and admittedly dangerous; hostility arose, and it was common for drivers to find the way blocked with heaps of stones or felled trees. Nevertheless, many passengers had been carried by steam carriage before the railways had accepted their first paying passenger.

The most successful era of the steam coaches in Britain was the 1830s. Ambitious routes were run, including one from London to Cambridge. But by 1840 it was clear that the steam carriages had little future. The decline of the steam carriage did not prevent continued effort in the field, and much attention was given to the steam tractor for use as a prime mover. Beginning about 1868 Britain was the scene of a vogue for light steam-powered personal carriages; if the popularity of these vehicles had not been legally hindered, it would certainly have resulted in widespread enthusiasm for motoring in the 1860s rather than in the 1890s. Some of the steamers could carry as few as two people and were capable of speeds of 20 miles per hour. The public climate remained unfriendly, however.

Light steam cars were being built in the United States, France, Germany, and Denmark during the same period, and it is possible to argue that the line from Cugnot's lumbering vehicle runs unbroken to the 20th-century steam automobiles made as late as 1926. The grip of the steam automobile on the American imagination has been strong ever since the era of the Stanley brothers (one of whose “steamers” took the world speed record at 127.66 miles per hour in 1906), and in the 1960s it was estimated that there were still 7,000 steam cars in the United States, about 1,000 of them in running order.

Text В

The Internal-Combustion Engine

The first internal-combustion engine was designed by the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens in 1678; it was to have been fueled with gunpowder, but it was never built. About 1860 a French inventor, Lenoir, built the first practical internal-combustion engine; it burned illuminating gas. In 1866 two German engineers, Eugen Langen and Nikolaus August Otto, developed a more efficient gas engine, and in 1876 Otto built a four-cycle engine, a prototype of the so- called Otto-cycle engines used in most modern automobiles and airplanes.

The high-speed internal-combustion motor of the German engineer Gottlieb Daimler revolutionized the automobile industry. His four-cycle, single­ cylinder motor, patented in 1887, achieved speeds many times those of any previous engine, thereby producing many times the power for the same weight. In 1889 he developed a two-cylinder engine that gave still greater power; the cylinders were in a V-type configuration. This engine design was adopted by a French manufacturer, Emile Levassor, who launched experiments in 1891 that subsequently led his firm, Panhard et Levassor, into automobile manufacture. Levassor's first automobile, produced in 1894, not only incorporated the Daimler engine but also was the first car in which the working parts were arranged in the operational sequence still used in present-day models. That is, the engine was in front, followed by the clutch, gearbox, propeller shaft, and differential and driving axle. The superiority of the high-speed Daimler engine over the then highly developed steam engine was conclusively demonstrated at the famous Paris-Bordeaux Race of 1895. The first car, propelled by a Daimler engine, came in six hours ahead of the second car, and the next three cars to finish were all propelled by Daimler engines. Another pioneer with the gasoline engine was the German engineer Karl Benz, who in 1885, working independently of Daimler, produced a mechanically propelled tricycle.

In the United States, pioneer automobile manufacturers were very active in the 1890s. Charles Edgar Duryea and his brother Frank Duryea brought out their horseless carriage in 1892-1893; the design of 1894 had two cylinders. Elwood Haynes constructed his automobile about the same time, and Alexander Winton produced his in 1896. Henry Ford produced his first car, an experimental model, in 1896.

Words and expressions

clutch gearbox propeller shaft differential driving axle tricycle сцепление; муфта

коробка передач

вал двигателя

дифференциал

ведущий мост; ведущая ось

трехколесный велосипед

Exercise 1

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. Who and when designed the first internal-combustion engine?

2. Who and when built the first practical internal-combustion engine?

3. What was the fuel used in the first internal-combustion engine?

4. Who and when built a four-cycle internal-combustion engine?

5. Why do we call four-cycle engines today as Otto-cycle engines?

6. What can you say about the high-speed internal-combustion motor of the German engineer Gottlieb Daimler?

7. When was Daimler’s four-cycle single-cylinder motor patented?

8. What type of engine design was adopted by a French manufacturer Levassor,?

9. What is characteristic of Levassor’s first car?

10. What was the sequence of working parts arrangement in Levassor's first car?

11. How was the superiority of the high-speed Daimler engine over the then highly developed steam engine was conclusively demonstrated?

12. What was the achievement of another pioneering German engineer Karl Benz?

13. When did Henry Ford produce his first car?

Exercise 2

Заполните пропуски недостающими no смыслу словами, используя текст:

1. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens designed the first.............. in 1678.

2. The first practical internal-combustion engine was built by French inventor....

3. Gottlieb Daimler’s four-cycle, single-cylinder motor achieved...many times higher of any previous engine.

4. Gottlieb Daimler’s four-cycle, single-cylinder motor produced... higher many times for the same weight of engine.

5. Gottlieb Daimler’s four-cycle two-cylinder engine gave still greater... and the... were in a V-type configuration.

6. Levassor's automobile was the first car in which the working parts were

arranged in the........... still used in present-day models.

7. In Levassor's automobile the... was in front, followed by the clutch,..., propeller shaft, differential and... axle.

8. The superiority of the high-speed Daimler engine over the then highly

developed.......... was demonstrated at Paris-Bordeaux Race of 1895.

9. The German engineer Karl Benz was another pioneer with the....................

10. Henry Ford... his first experimental model in 1896.

Exercise 3

Соответствуют ли данные предложения содержанию текста:

1. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens in 1866 developed a four-cycle engine used in most modern automobiles and airplanes.

2. The high-speed internal-combustion motor of German engineer Emile Levassor revolutionized the automobile industry.

3. Daimler’s four-cycle, single-cylinder motor achieved speeds many times those of any previous engine.

4. Daimler’s four-cycle, single-cylinder engine produced less power for the same weight.

5. Levassor’s first automobile was the first car in which the working parts were arranged in completely different operational sequence if compared with present-day models.

6. The superiority of the highly developed steam engine over high-speed Daimler engine was demonstrated at the famous Paris-Dakar Race of 1995.

7. Another pioneer with the gasoline engine was the German engineer Karl Benz, who worked out jointly with Daimler a mechanically propelled tricycle in 1855.

8. In Russia, pioneer automobile manufacturers were very active in the 1890s.

9. Henry Ford produced his first car, an experimental model, in 1896.

Exercise 4

Используя текст, составьте высказывания с данными словами и выражениями:

Internal-combustion engine — to be fueled with — a four-cycle engine - to be used in automobiles - high-speed motor - to achieve speeds - to produce power many times those of any previous engine - to give greater power - to launch experiments - working parts - operational sequence - engine - clutch - gearbox - propeller shaft - differential - driving axle - an experimental model.

Exercise 5

Кратко передайте содержание каждого абзаца.

Exercise 6

Выделите пять основных идей текста.

Exercise 7

Составьте предложения, используя данные слова и выражения:

• Axle (ось, полуось; ведущий мост); cardan axle (карданный вал); bearing axle (несущая ось); adjustable axle (самоустанавливающаяся ось); crank axle (коленчатый вал); floating axle (плавающая ось); swing axle (качающаяся ось).

• Otto-engine (четырехтактный карбюраторный двигатель); internal- combustion engine (двигатель внутреннего сгорания); atomic engine (атомный двигатель); fuel-injection engine (двигатель с впрыском топлива; дизель); outboat engine (подвесной лодочный мотор); turbo-jet engine (турбореактивный двигатель).

• Clutch (муфта, сцепление); centrifugal clutch (центробежная муфта); disk clutch (дисковая муфта); magnetic clutch (магнитная муфта); oil clutch (гидравлическая муфта);

• Gear-box (коробка передач); chain-gear (цепная передача); connecting gear (соединительный механизм); crank-gear (кривошипно­шатунный механизм); delivering gear (механизм подачи); disconnecting gear (механизм выключения); electromagnetic gear (электромагнитная передача).

• Propeller shaft (вал винта); drive shaft (приводной вал); engine shaft (главный вал двигателя); cable shaft (гибкий, проволочный вал); stationary shaft (неподвижная ось); governor shaft (ось регулятора).

• Differential (дифференциал, разностный); bevel gear differential (дифференциал с коническими шестернями); high traction differential (дифференциал, обеспечивающий повышенную проходимость); inter-axle differential (промежуточный дифференциал); pressure differential (перепад давления).

Exercise 8

Переведите на русский язык следующие предложения:

1. In mid 1860s German engineers worked out the first practical internal- combustion engine which burned illuminating gas.

2. Today Otto-cycle engines are used in most modern automobiles and airplanes.

3. Most modern cars nowadays are motorized by high-speed internal- combustion engines of the German engineer Daimler.

4. New generation engine produces power many times exceeding the previous one.

5. Volkswagen model 2006 has eight-cylinder V-type configuration engine that gives greater power at same consumption of fuel.

6. First automobile, produced in Russia incorporated the Daimler engine.

7. The problem in the gear box forced the driver to perform an overhaul ahead of schedule.

8. Superiority of the modern fuel-injection engines over highly developed internal-combustion engines was conclusively demonstrated at the famous Paris- Dakar Race of 2005.

9. The first car propelled by a fuel-injection engine came three hours ahead of the second car driven by internal-combustion engine.

10. Two engineers worked independently and came to similar results in design of four-wheel drive racing car.

Exercise 9

Переведите на английский язык следующие предложения:

1. В 1866 году немецкий инженер Август Отто разработал четырехцилиндровый двигатель внутреннего сгорания.

2. Изобретателем высокоскоростного двигателя внутреннего сгорания был немецкий инженер Готлиб Даймлер.

3. В этом двигателе в качестве топлива используется спирт.

4. Мощность данного дизельного двигателя в два раза превосходит мощность аналогичного карбюраторного двигателя.

5. Высокоскоростные двигатели внутреннего сгорания революционизировали автомобильную промышленность во второй половине XIX века.

6. На автомобиле французского промышленника Эмиля Левасо в конце XIX века был установлен двигатель внутреннего сгорания, разработанный Даймлером.

7. В автомобиле Левасо 1894 года рабочие детали были расположены в эксплуатационной последовательности, используемой в современных моделях автомобилей.

8. Расположение рабочих агрегатов в автомобиле следующее: двигатель, сцепление, коробка передач, карданный вал, дифференциал и приводная ось.

9. Превосходство высокоскоростного двигателя внутреннего сгорания Даймлера над паровым двигателем было продемонстрировано на ралли Париж-Бордо в 1895.

10. Модель автомобиля ВАЗ 2012 2003 года имеет

четырехцилиндровый двигатель внутреннего сгорания, механическую коробку передач и передний привод колес.

Exercise 10

Текст на самостоятельный перевод:

The Selden Patent

An important development in the commercial and industrial history of the motor vehicle in the United States was the patent applied for in 1879 by George Baldwin Selden, a lawyer in Rochester, New York. By legal technicalities, the

actual issuing of this patent was delayed until 1895, so that the original patent rights did not expire until 1912. This patent covered the application of an internal-combustion engine to the propulsion of a vehicle. It included the combination of such a motor with a clutch, or similar engaging and disengaging device in the train of mechanism, by which the motor drove the propelling wheels. It also covered the use of reducing gear, by which the propelling wheels could be driven at speeds lower than that of the motor shaft. Several leading companies took licenses under the patent, but others, led by Ford, refused to do so, leading to litigation that continued from 1903 to 1911. This litigation terminated in the decision that Selden's patent was not infringed because it was valid only for an automobile driven by an engine of the specific type described in the patent, instead of the four-cycle engine then in universal use. By the time the Selden patent suit ended, 600,000 automobiles were being operated in the United States, some driven by steam, some by gasoline, and some by electricity. These cars were almost all open models of the roadster and phaeton, or touring- car, type. Before that time motoring had been regarded primarily as a sport; from then on it was increasingly considered a means of transportation.

Text С Rise of U.S. Automaking

To meet the growing demand for automobiles of all types, Ford greatly speeded up production by introducing, in 1913, the conveyor belt to carry automobile parts on assembly lines. Another important influence in the subsequent growth of the automobile industry was the formation at this time of the organization then known as the Automobile Board of Trade and now named the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association. Members of the organization, which today embraces all automobile manufacturers in the United States, made a cross-licensing agreement whereby any member company might use the patents controlled by any other member, without the payment of royalties. The virtue of the agreement was that it established a custom of “patents for use,” instead of patents as advantages to be monopolized and exploited. Under the agreement, patent rights were shared so that better automobiles might be made, no matter who might make them.

Many early U.S. manufacturers located their plants in and about Detroit. This is where the home establishments of the manufacturers of all the passenger-car and most of the motor-truck vehicles produced in the United States are now located.

While Ford was perfecting his Model T, the General Motors Corporation (GM) was established in 1908 by William C. Durant, who combined the Buick,

Oldsmobile, and Oakland companies and, later, Cadillac, to form GM. General Motors weathered numerous financial crises in its early years, finally gaining stability when the Du Pont family bought much GM stock (since divested) in 1920. The invention by Charles F. Kettering of the electric self-starter in 1912 was a benchmark in U.S. automotive development, but others quickly followed, including balloon tires in 1921. Among other U.S. automotive pioneers were the brothers John Dodge and Horace Dodge, machinists and bicycle builders, for whom the Dodge car is named; Walter P. Chrysler, a railroad worker who later formed Chrysler Corporation; and John N. Willys, whose company won worldwide fame during World War II as a manufacturer of military Jeeps. Since its inception, the automotive industry has shown a steady expansion, with the exception of the years during World War II when its plants were converted to the production of war materials. In 1978 motor-vehicle production reached an all-time high of 12,878,000 units, including about 9.2 million cars. In the aftermath of the fuel shortages of 1973-74, U.S. motor-vehicle production was less than 9 million units by 1975. In the late 1970s, however, production had recovered to about 11 million units.

Words and expressions assembly

Cross-licensing agreement royalty

1) сборка, монтаж. 2) агрегат, узел, комплект. перекрестное лицензионное соглашение

1) a sum paid to the owner of copyright

or patent; 2) a sum paid to a land owner

for the right to extract oil, coal, etc,

Exercise 1

Ответьте на следующие вопросы:

1. What unit was introduced by Henry Ford in 1913 to speed up production of automobiles?

2. Formation of what organization had an important influence to growth of the automobile industry in the beginning of 19^lh century?

3. How do you understand the cross - licensing agreement manufacturers?

4. What city in the USA is known as home for most manufacturers of passenger-cars and motor-truck vehicles?

5. What part of an automobile was invented by Charles F. Kettering in 1912?

6. When and where balloon tires were invented and how they influenced the automobile industry in general?

7. What american automotive pioneers do you know?

8. Has automotive industry shown a steady expansion during World War II?

9. What was the figure of motor-vehicle produced in the USA in late 1970s?

Exercise 2

Заполните пропуски недостающими no смыслу словами, используя текст:

1. Ford greatly speeded up... by introducing the conveyor belt to carry automobile parts on assembly lines.

2. An important influence in the growth of the... was the formation of the Automobile Board of Trade.

3. A cross-licensing agreement were made by....

4. Under the..., patent rights were shared so that better automobiles might be made, no matter who might make them.

5. The capital of many early U.S. manufacturers was located in....

6. The invention of... by Charles F. Kettering was a benchmark in U.S. automotive development?

7. John N. Willys was famous as a manufacturer of... during the World War II.

8. The automotive industry plants were converted to the production of... during the World War II.

9. An all-time high in US motor-vehicle production was reached in....

Exercise 3

Соответствуют ли данные предложения содержанию текста:

1. Ford greatly speeded up production of cars by introducing in 1913 an electric engine instead of internal-combustion engine.

2. The conveyor belt was invented by Ford to carry automobile parts on assembly lines.

3. Automobile Board of Trade influenced greatly the subsequent growth of the automobile industry in the United States.

4. Automobile Board of Trade today embraces all automobile manufacturers in the United States.

5. Anti-trust laws established a custom of “patents for use,” instead of patents as advantages to be monopolized and exploited.

6. Under the cross - licensing agreement, patent rights were shared so that better automobiles might be made, no matter who might make them.

7. Many early U.S. manufacturers located their plants in and about New York City.

8. Charles F. Kettering invented balloon tires in 1912.

9. During 1941—1946 the automotive industry has shown a steady expansion.

10. 12,878,000 motor vehicles were produced in the United States.

Exercise 4

Используя текст, составьте высказывания с данными словами и выражениями:

Conveyor belt - automobile parts - assembly line - important influence - member of the organization — cross-licensing agreement - member company - payment of royalties - to be monopolized and exploited - patent right - to be established - to gain stability - electric self-starter - to win worldwide fame - to be converted - fuel shortage.

Exercise 5

Кратко передайте содержание каждого абзаца.

Exercise б

Выделите пять основных идей текста.

Exercise 7

Составьте предложения, используя данные выражения:

• Conveyer belt (ленточный конвейер); chain conveyer (цепной конвейер); cable conveyer (канатный конвейер); shuttle conveyer (реверсивный конвейер).

• Assembly line (сборочная линия); brake assembly (тормозная система); control assembly (узел управления); terminal assembly (контактное поле); improper assembly (неправильная сборка).

• Export license (экспортная лицензия); general license (генеральная лицензия); cross-licensing agreement (перекрестное лицензионное соглашение); import license лицензия на импорт); individual license (индивидуальная лицензия); license agreement (лицензионное соглашение); license system (лицензионная система); patent license (лицензия на пользование патентом, патентная лицензия).

• Electric self-starter (электрический стартер); series-parallel starter (последовательно-параллельный пусковой стартер); stator starter пускатель; реостат в цепи статора); switch starter (пусковой переключатель).

Переведите на русский язык следующие предложения:

1. The novelist received a royalty of 8 % from the sales of her book.

2. The oil royalties were higher than expected.

3. During the last years the growing demand for automobiles of all types was observed in Russia.

4. Our company greatly speeded up production of semi-finished parts for furniture industry by introducing in 1999 the computer aided machines.

5. The conveyor belt is used to carry automobile parts on assembly lines.

6. Another important influence in oil-prices preservation was formation at that time of the Organization of petroleum exporting countries.

7. It is considered illegal to extract oil without the payment of royalties to landowner or the state.

8. Most of huge industrial complexes locate their plants in and about big

cities.

9. During the years of the USSR the defense industry has shown a steady expansion.

Exercise 9

Переведите на английский язык:

1. Растущий спрос на автомобили всех марок вынудил правительство России увеличить размер ввозных таможенных пошлин на импортные автомобили в 2004 году.

2. Конвейерные линии широко используются на сборочных линиях автомобильных заводов.

3. Значительным событием, повлиявшим на рост производства в России, было уменьшение налога на прибыль.

4. Создание независимой ассоциации производителей товаров повседневного спроса дало толчок росту пищевой промышленности.

5. Ученые университета запатентовали свое последнее изобретение и получили на него патентную лицензию.

6. В современном мире многие производители компьютеров заключают перекрестные лицензионные соглашения.

7. Оплата лицензионных платежей является обязательной для всех нефтяных компаний.

8. Патентные права на производство высокотехнологичного авиационного оборудования были разделены между двумя государст- венными предприятиями.

9. Автозавод КАМАЗ является крупнейшим производителем грузового автотранспорта в Российской федерации.

10. В первые годы распада СССР крупнейшие российские автомобильные заводы выдержали многочисленные финансовые кризисы.

Exercise 10

Текст на самостоятельный перевод:

The mass production of automobiles

The traditional example of mass production is the automobile industry, which has continued to refine the basic principles originally laid down by Henry Ford and other pioneers of mass production techniques. Today's automobile is the result of a large number of mass production lines established in a multitude of manufacturing and assembly facilities throughout the world. The assembly plant from which the finished automobile emerges is only the final element of a mass production operation that, for many companies, includes plants in several different countries. Into the final assembly plant flow large subassemblies such as the automobile chassis, the engine, major body components such as doors, panels, upholstered seats, and many electronic, electrical, and hydraulic systems such as brakes, lighting systems, and sound systems. Each of these, in turn, is usually the product of a mass production line in another factory. Stamping plants specialize in producing the formed metal parts that constitute the body of the automobile. Radio assembly plants, in turn, depend upon other assembly plants for components such as transistors and integrated circuits. There are glass plants for windows, transmission plants, tire plants, and many others, each specializing in the mass production of its own product, which is, in turn, fed into the final assembly plant. The control of the flow of material into and out of final assembly plants, including the scheduling of production from feeder plants and the timing of rail and truck shipments, is among the major engineering tasks that make the total mass production system for automobiles work.

In the final assembly line one can see clearly how machinery and human effort in assembly are divided into many specialized skills. The special tooling and machinery developed to handle assembly parts and to aid operators in their tasks can also be observed. At a given point on the line a robot welder - unaided by a human operator - may weld body parts together. At another position the motor is mounted on the chassis by a large machine guided by an operator. In other places body panels and doors are assembled to the chassis, and dashboard instruments and wiring are added by hand with simple tools. Each operator learns his task in detail and uses tools specialized for that task. The total operation is paced by the speed of movement of the conveyor that carries the partially assembled automobiles. The number of operators, machine stations, and flow of materials to the conveyor have all been planned so that the conveyor can maintain an essentially constant speed with each operator and machine functioning near optimum effectiveness.

In Ford's early lines, parts and product were precisely standardized. Only one car model was manufactured, and each unit was identical to every other unit in all aspects, including colour - black. Today's automotive manufacturing engineers have learned to mass produce a highly customized product. The same assembly line may turn out a variety of models with many colours and options. This is achieved by continued insistence on standardization of critical elements such as the methods by which parts are held together internally. Thus, the operator who specializes in assembling doors can handle a variety of models and colours equally well. In addition, the flow of materials to the various line positions is carefully scheduled and controlled so that the specific part required for a given model, colour, or option list arrives at the line at the precise moment that the partially assembled unit requiring the part has arrived along the conveyor. The exquisitely designed production-control systems operating in the automotive and other industries make it possible for the consumer to obtain a greatly enhanced variety of product without sacrificing the cost advantages of mass production techniques.

Text D

The Modern Auto Industry

By 1980, more than 300 million cars and 85 million trucks and buses were operating throughout the world, forming an indispensable transportation network. In the United States, automobile registrations stood at about 114 million, with 30 million commercial vehicles in operation. Germany's Volkswagen sent its first shipments of autos, popularly known as Beetles, to the United States in the early 1950s and eventually became a major force in the U.S. auto industry, opening a U.S. assembly plant in Pennsylvania in 1978 and planning another for Michigan for 1983. British and French automakers also enjoyed growth in exports to the United States during the 1950s. In 1959 the French shipped in a record 187,000 units and the British a record 208,000 units.

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