The nature, type and arrangement of the ICs of the word is known as its derivative structure. According to the derivative structure all words fall into two big classes: simple, non-derived words and

Derivational analyses

The nature, type and arrangement of the ICs of the word is known as its derivative structure. According to the derivative structure all words fall into two big classes: simple, non-derived words and complexes or derivatives. Simplexes are words which derivationally cannot’ be segmented into ICs.A derivative is a word which structurally built on a simpler lexical item. Derivational base-is the constituent to which the rule of word formation is applied. the derivational level of analysis; it aims at establishing correlations between different types of words, the structural and semantic patterns words are built on, the study also enables one to understand how new words appear in the language. Structurally derivational bases fall into three classes: 1) bases that coincide with morphological stems of different degrees of complexity, e.g. duti ful, dutiful ly; day-dream, to day-dream, daydream er.

Derivationally the stems may be:

a) simple, which consist of only one, semantically non motivated constituent (pocket, motion, retain, horrible).

b) derived stems are semantically and structurally motivated, and are the results of the application of word-formation rules (girl – girlish, to weekend, to daydream)

c) compound stems are always semantically motivated (match-box, letter-writer)

2) bases that coincide with word-forms; e.g. paper- bound, un smiling, un known. This class of bases is confined to verbal word-forms — the present and the past participles.

3) bases that coincide with word-grоups of different degrees of stability, e,g. second-rate ness, flat-waist ed, etc. This class is made of word-groups. Bases of this kind are most active with derivational affixes in the class of adjectives and nouns, e.g. blue-eyed, long-fingered, old-fashioned, do-gooder, etc.

Derivational affixes: Derivational affixes are ICs of numerous derivatives in all parts of speech. Derivational affixes possess two basic functions: 1) that of stem-building and 2) that of word-building. In most cases derivational affixes perform both functions simultaneously. It is true that the part-of-speech meaning is proper in different degrees to the derivational suffixes and prefixes. It stands out clearly in derivational suffixes but it is less evident in prefixes; some prefixes lack it altogether. Prefixes like en-, un-, de-, out-, be-, unmistakably possess the part-of-speech meaning and function as verb classifiers. The prefix over- evidently lacks the part-of-speech meaning and is freely used both for verbs and adjectives, the same may be said about non-, pre-, post-.

Derivational patterns- is a model design of building words.

Affixation.

Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to different types of bases. The zero degree of derivation is ascribed to simple words, i.e. words whose stem is homonymous with a word-form e.g. atom, haste, devote, anxious, horror, etc. Derived words whose bases are built on simple stems + one derivational affix are described as having the first degree of derivation, e.g. atomic, hasty, devotion, etc. Derived words formed by two consecutive stages of adding affixes the second degree of derivation, etc., e.g. atomical, hastily, devotional, etc. Affixation is subdivided into suffixation and prefixation. In Modern English suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun and adjective formation, while prefixation is mostly typical of verb formation.

Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes

Two types of prefixes are to be distinguished:

1) those not correlated with any independent word (either notional or functional), e.g. un-, dis-, re-, pre-, post-, etc.; and

2.those correlated with functional words (prepositions or preposition like adverbs), e.g. out-, over-, up-, under-, prefixes are qualified as semi bound morphemes

Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. Suffixes usually transfer words to a different part of speech.

There are different classifications of suffixes:

1) The first principle of classification that, one might say, suggests itself is the part of speech formed:

Noun-suffixes (-er, -dom, -ness, -ation)

Adjective-suffixes (-able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous)

Verb-suffixes (-en, -fy, -ise)

Adverb-suffixes (-ly, -ward

2))a deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal base), e.g. -er, -ing, -ment, -able, etc. (speaker

b) denominal suffixes (those added to the noun base), e.g. -less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some, etc. (handless, childish

c) de-adjectival suffixes (those affixed to the adjective base), e.g. -en, -ly, -ish, -ness, etc. (blacken

Suffixes are also classified as to the degree of their productivity.

Productivity: Distinction is usually made between dead and living affixes. Dead affixes are described as those which are no longer felt in Modern English as component parts of words; they have so fused with the base of the word as to lose their independence completely, e.g. -d in dead, seed, -le, -1, -el in bundle, sail,; -ock in hillock; -lock in wedlock; -t in flight, height. Living affixes may be easily singled out from a word, e.g. the noun-forming suffixes -ness, -dom, -hood, -age, -ance, as in darkness, freedom, childhood, etc. or the adjective-forming suffixes -en, -ous, -ive, -ful, -y as in wooden, poisonous, active, hopeful, Stony.

Origin: the division is make between native and foreign affixes, e.g. the suffixes -ness, -ish, -dom and the prefixes be-, mis-, un- are of native origin, whereas such suffixes as -ation, -ment, -able and prefixes like dis-, ex-, re- are of foreign origin.

The adoption of foreign words influence the system of English word-formation, so Hybrid words appear: 1) Cases when a foreign stem is combined with a native affix, as in colourless, uncertain. 2)Cases when native stems are combined with foreign affixes, such as drinkable, joyous, shepherdes.\

Conversion

Conversion is one of the principal ways of forming words in Modern English and it is highly productive. Conversion consists in making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining unchanged. The new word has a meaning which differs from that of the original one though it can more or less be easily associated with it: work — to work; love — to love; paper — to paper; brief — to brief, etc.

Conversion can be described as a morphological way of forming words. The following indisputable cases of conversion have bееn discussed in linguistic literature:

1) formation of verbs from nouns and more rarely from other parts of speech, and

2) formation of nouns from verbs and rarely from other parts of speech.

The treatment of conversion as a morphological way of forming words was suggested by prof. Smirnitsky. Other linguists define conversion as a non-affixal way of forming words pointing out that the characteristic feature is that a certain stem is used for the formation of a different word of a different part of speech without a derivational affix being added. Others hold the view that conversion is the formation of new words with the help of a zero-morpheme. There is also a point of view on conversion as a morphological-syntactic word-building means, for it involves both a change of the paradigm and a change of the syntactic function of the word. Besides, there is also a purely syntactic approach commonly known as a functional approach to conversion. They define conversion as a shift from one part of speech to another contending that in Modern English a word may function as two different parts of speech at the same time. The two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs. Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous amongst the words produced by conversion: e. g. to hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog, to wolf, to monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to room, to floor, to blackmail, to blacklist, to honeymoon, and very many others. Nouns are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This is the queerest do I've ever come across. Do — event, incident), go (e. g. He has still plenty of go at his age. Go — energy), make, run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry, show, move, etc.

Basic Criteria: the problem of the criteria of semantic derivation: which of the two words within a conversion pair is the derived member? The first criterion makes use of the non-correspondence between the lexical meaning of the root-morpheme and the part-of-speech meaning of the stem in one of the two words making up a conversion pair. In cases like pen n — pen v, father n — father v, etc. The second criterion involves a comparison of a conversion pair with analogous word-pairs making use of the synonymic sets, of which the words in question are members. For instance, in comparing conversion pairs like chat v — chat n; show v — show n; work v — work n, etc. with analogous synonymic word-pairs like converse — conversation; exhibit — exhibition; occupy — occupation; employ — employment, etc. we are led to conclude that the nouns chat, show, work, etc. are the derived members

Of late a new criterion of semantic derivation for conversion pairs has been suggested.¹ It is based on the frequency of occurrence in various utterances of either of the two member-words related through conversion.The most universal are the semantic and the frequency criteria of semantic derivation.

Conversion is a convenient and "easy" way of enriching the vocabulary with new words. The high productivity of conversion finds its reflection in speech where numerous occasional cases of conversion can be found.

Compounding

This type of word-building, in which new words are produced by combining two or more stems. productive types.

Compounds, on the one hand, are generally clearly distinguished from free word-groups, on the other hand they borderline between them display close ties and it’s sometimes difficult to identity where is a compound word and where is a word phrase. So there are some criteria which are used to differentiate them: phonetic criterion, morphological, semantic and graphic.

Phоnetiсallу compounds are marked by a specific structure of their own. No phonemic changes of bases occur in composition but the compound word acquires a new stress pattern, different from the stress in the motivating words (key, hole = keyhole, each possess their own stress but when the stems of these words are brought together to make up a new compound word the latter is given a different stress pattern). Compound words have three stress patterns:

a) a high or unity stress on the first component as in ‘ honeymoon, doorway, etc.

b) a double stress, with a primary stress on the first component and a weaker, secondary stress on the second component, e.g. ´blood-`vessel, ´mad-`doctor.

Graphically most compounds have two types of spelling — they are spelt either solidly or with a hyphen

Semantically compound words are generally motivated units. The meaning of the compound is first of all derived from the’ combined lexical meanings of its components. In compound words semantic relations between the base and the stem on which the word is built is more obvious.

Morphologically compound words are characterised by the specific order and arrangement in which bases follow one another. The order in which the two bases are placed within a compound is rigidly fixed.

The meaning of the compound is derived not only from the combined lexical meanings of its components, but also from the meaning signalled by the patterns of the order and arrangement of its ICs. The semantic centre of the compound is the lexical meaning of the second component modified and restricted by the meaning of the first.

There are different classifications of compound words:

From the point of view of1. degree of semantic independence: coordinative compounds – the two ICs are semantically equally important (oak-tree, girl-friend, Anglo-American); and subordinative compounds - the components are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance but are based on the domination of the head-member which is, as a rule, the second

2. From part of speech they form: compound words are found in all parts of speech, but the bulk of compounds are nouns and adjectives. Each part of speech is characterised by its set of derivational patterns and their semantic variants

3. From the point of view of the means by which the components are joined together compound words may be classified into: words formed by merely placing one constituent after another in a definite order; compound words whose ICs are joined together with a special linking-element — the linking vowels [ou] and occasionally [i] and the linking consonant [s/z] — which is indicative of composition as in, e.g., speedometer, tragicomic, statesman

Compounds may be also classified according to the nature of the bases: Compounds proper are formed by joining together bases built on the stems. Derivational compounds, e.g. long-legged, three-cornered, a break-down, a pickpocket, those that have derivational affixes in their structure – blue-eyed, golden-haired, film-goer, lady-killer).

4) The description of compound words through the correlation with variable word-groups makes it possible to classify them into four major classes: adjectival-nominal (snow-white, age-long, care-free), verbal-nominal (office-management, price-reduction, wage-cut, hand-shake), nominal (windmill, horse-race, pencil-case) and verb-adverb compounds (break-down, runaway, castaway).

Abbreviation

Shortening is a comparatively new way of word-building, which has achieved a high degree of productivity nowadays, especially in American English.

Shortenings are produced in two different ways:

1. To make a new word from a syllable of the original word. The word may lose its beginning (phone – from telephone, fence – from defence), it’s ending (hols – for holidays, vac – for vacation, props – for properties, ad – from advertisement) or both the beginning and the ending (flu – from influenza, fridge – from refrigerator).

2. To make a new word from the initial letters of a word group: a) If the abbreviated written form tends itself to be read as though it were an ordinary English word and sounds like an English word, it will be read like one. The words thus formed are called acronyms, U.N.O. ['ju:neu] from the United Nations Organisation, NATO — the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, SALT — Strategic Arms Limitation Talks.

b) The other subgroup consists of initial abbreviation with the alphabetical reading retained, i.e. pronounced as a series of letters. B.B.C. from the British Broadcasting Corporation, M.P. from Member of Parliament. This type is called initial shortenings. They are found not only among formal words, such as the ones above, but also among colloquialisms and slang. So, g. f. is a shortened word made from the compound girl-friend.

1. Sound Imitation (onomatopoeia - [onemaete'pie]).

Such words are made by imitating different kinds of sounds that may be produced by animals, birds, insects, human beings and inanimate objects.

It is of some interest that sounds produced by the same kind of animal are frequently represented by quite different sound groups in different languages. For instance, English dogs bark (cf. the R. лаять). The English cock cries cock-a-doodle-doo (cf. the R. ку-ка-ре-ку). Semantically, according to the source of sound, onomatopoeic words fall into a few very definite groups. Many verbs denote sounds produced by human beings in the process of communication or in expressing their feelings: babble, chatter, giggle, grunt, grumble, murmur, mutter, titter, whine, whisper and many more. Then there are sounds produced by animals, birds and insects, e.g. buzz, cackle, croak, crow, hiss, honk, howl, moo, mew, neigh, purr, roar and others. Some birds are named after the sound they make, these are the crow, the cuckoo, the whippoor-will and a few others. Besides the verbs imitating the sound of water such as bubble or splash, there are others imitating the noise of metallic things: clink, tinkle, or forceful motion: clash, crash, whack, whip, whisk

2. Reduplication.

In reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, either without any phonetic changes as in bye-bye (coll, for good-bye) or with a variation of the root-vowel or consonant as in ping-pong, chit-chat (this second type is called gradational reduplication). Stylistically speaking, most words made by reduplication represent informal groups: colloquialisms and slang

3. Back formation.

The earliest examples of this type of word-building are the verb to beg that was made from the French borrowing beggar, to burgle from burglar, to cobble from cobbler. In all these cases the verb was made from the noun by subtracting what was mistakenly associated with the English suffix -er. So, in the case of the verbs to beg, to burgle, to cobble the process was reversed: instead of a noun made from a verb by affixation (as in painter from to paint), a verb was produced from a noun by subtraction. That is why this type of word-building received the name of back-formation or reversion.

Later examples of back-formation are to butle from butler, to baby-sit from baby-sitter, to force-land from forced landing, to blood-transfuse from blood-transfuing.

4. Sound interchange.Sound interchange may be defined as an opposition in which words or word forms are differentiated due to an alternation in the phonemic composition of the root. The change may affect the root vowel, as in food n:: feed v; or root consonant as in speak v:: speech n; or both, as for instance in life n:: live v. It may also be combined with affixation: strong a:: strength n; or with affixation and shift of stress as in ' democrat:: de'mocracy.

The type is not productive.

16. Phraseological units

Phraseological units are comparatively stable and semantically inseparable. The essential features of phraseological units are stability of the lexical components and lack of motivation.

The interpretation of the phraseology in Engl.

- a way of expressing oneself

- a way in which words and phrases are used especially by particular individuals and group of individ.

Features:

- they are ready-made unit

- they are characterised by stability of grammatical structure and lexical components

- they are idiomatic, transferred. They are colourful, expressive, stylistically marked.

The debatable problems:

1. the problem of the adequate term and its definition (The definition is felt to be inadequate as the concept ready- made units seems to be rather vague. In fact this term can be applied to a variety of heterogeneous linguistic phenomena ranging from word-groups to sentences (e.g. proverbs, sayings, collocation, lexical phrases) and also quotations from poems, novels or scientific treatises all of which can be described as ready-made units)

2. the problem of the lang. material which is reflected to phraseology (narrow and wide approaches in phraseology: some scholars used term word equivalents instead of phrasal units. This narrow understanding. Now many scholars expand a wide approach to phraseology and they include in the phraseologycal sentence idioms, proverbs, saying, clause idioms).

3.the problem of the classification of the lang. material (classification of Vinogradova(semantic): Phraseological fusions(сращения) are completely non-motivated word-groups, such as red tape — ‘bureaucratic methods’; heavy father — ’serious or solemn part in a theatrical play’; kick the bucket — ‘die’; and the like. The meaning of the components has no connections whatsoever, at least synchronically, with the meaning of the whole group.бить баклуши.

Phraseological unities are partially non-motivated as their meaning can usually be perceived through the metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological unit. For EG: to skate of thin ice – рисковать; to sit on the fence – выжидать; a big bug – важная шишка.

Phraseological collocations are motivated but they are made up of words possessing specific lexical valency which accounts for a certain degree of stability in such word-groups. In phraseological collocations variability of member-words is strictly limited. We can say take a liking (fancy) but not take hatred (disgust).) classification of Koonina: 1. one-summit units at large, by the way. 2. phraseological units with the structure of coordinate or subordinate word group to burn one’s fingers / by hook and by crook. 3. phras. Units, structures with an impeded clause, that is a lexeme + clause sheeps that passin the night. 4. clause idioms when pigs fly 5. nominative- communicative phraseological units break the ice – the ice is broken 6. sentence idioms sticking time saves 7. interjections (восклицание) it’s a pretty kettle of fish.

Collocation – habitual association between particular words. They are not transferred. (heavy traffic, weaping willow плакучая ива).

Lexical phrases- Cristal devides them into polywords (by the way, so) and institutionalized expressions (how do you do).

Proverb- short traditional saying of a didactic nature (a stick in time saves nine).

Sayings - concise observation that expresses fock, wisdom.(time flies)

There are several sources of phraseological units. One of them is the development of cultural and economical spheres of life.A great many phras. units come from the words of Greek and Latin classics from the Bible and from myths and legends. EG: the apple of discord – яблоко раздора.

17. Regional varieties of the English language. Lexical differences.

The Eng. language. exists in the form of its varieties. It is the national language of England proper, the USA, Australia, New Zealand and some part of Canada.

Standard English — the official language of Great Britain taught at schools and universities, used by the press, the radio and the television and spoken by educated people may be defined as that form of English which is current and literary, substantially uniform and recognised as acceptable wherever English is spoken or understood. Modern linguistics distinguishes territorial variants of a national language and local dialects. Variants of a language are regional varieties of a standard literary language characterised by some minor peculiarities in the sound system, vocabulary and grammar and by their own literary norms. Dialects are varieties of a language used as a means of oral communication in small localities, they are set off from other varieties by some distinctive features of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. The most marked difference between dialects and regional variants in the field of phonetics lies in the fact that dialects possess phonemic distinctions, while regional variants are characterised by phonetic distinctions. In matters of vocabulary and grammar the difference is in the greater number and greater diversity of local peculiarities in the dialects as compared with the regional variants. In the British Isles there exist many speech varieties confined to particular areas. These local dialects traceable to Old English dialects may be classified into six distinct divisions: 1) Lowland (Scottish or Scotch, North of the river Tweed),¹ 2) Northern (between the rivers Tweed and Humber), 3) Western, 4) Midland and 5) Eastern (between the river Humber and the Thames), 6) Southern (South of the Thames). Their sphere of application is confined to the oral speech of the rural population in a locality and only the Scottish dialect can be said to have a literature of its own with Robert Burns as its greatest representative.

Since BE, AE and AuE have essentially the same grammar system, phonetic system and vocabulary, they cannot be regarded as different languages. Nor can they be referred to local dialects; because they serve all spheres of verbal communication in society, within their territorial area they have dialectal differences of their own; besides they differ far less than local dialects.

Another consideration is that AE has its own literary norm and AuE is developing one. Thus we must speak of three variants of the English national language having different accepted literary standards, one spoken in the British Isles, another spoken in the USA, the third in Australia. Canadian English is influenced both by British and American English but it also has some specific features of its own. Specifically Canadian words are called Canadianisms. there are Australian English, Canadian English, Indian English. Each of these has developed a literature of its own, and is characterised by peculiarities in phonetics, spelling, grammar and vocabulary.

The main lexical differences between the variants are caused by the lack of equivalent lexical units in one of them, divergences in the semantic structures of polysemantic words and peculiarities of usage of some words on different territories. Local variations in the USA are relatively small. What is called by tradition American dialects is closer in nature to regional variants of the national literary language.

Сosy—cozy, offence-offense,practice-practise,jewellery-juwelry,traveling-traveling,encase-incase…

Rubbish-garbage, lift-elevator, underground-subway.

18. Ways of enriching and expanding the English lexicon.

As has been already mentioned, no vocabulary of any living language is ever stable but is constantly changing, growing and decaying. The changes occurring in the vocabulary are due both to linguistic and non-linguistic causes, but in most cases to the combination of both. Words may drop out altogether as a result of the disappearance of the actual objects they denote. Sometimes words do not actually drop out but become obsolete, sinking to the level of vocabulary units used in narrow, specialised fields of human intercourse making a group of archaisms: e g. billow — ‘ wave’. Yet the number of new words that appear in the language is so much greater than those that drop out or become obsolete, that the development of vocabularies may be described as a process of never-ending growth.² The appearance of a great number of new words and the development of new meanings in the words already available in the language may be largely accounted for by the rapid flow of events, the progress of science and technology and emergence of new concepts in different fields of human activity. It must be mentioned as a noteworthy peculiarity that new vocabulary items in Modern English belong only to the notional parts of speech, to be more exact, only to nouns, verbs and adjectives; of these nouns are most numerous

New vocabulary units are as a rule monosemantic and most of them are marked by peculiar stylistic value — they primarily belong to the specialised vocabulary. Neutral words and phrases are comparatively few. Terms used in various fields of science and technique make the greater part of new words. New vocabulary units are as a rule monosemantic and most of them are marked by peculiar stylistic value — they primarily belong to the specialised vocabulary. Neutral words and phrases are comparatively few. Terms used in various fields of science and technique make the greater part of new words.Words are a mirror of their times.

40 th appeared words such as: blockbuster, a call-girl, bikini.50^th: do it yourself, age-bomb60^th fast-food, pop art, space shuttle

70^th global warming, junk food, chair person 80^th telemarketing, yuppie, websiteThe end of the 20^th computing, art and music, environment.

Ways of enriching:Word formation- second to none in the process of voc. replenishment. (pattern and non pattern types).

Pattern types:

1) affixation: abl ism, age ism, workahol ism; rego nomics, globa crat, chap ess, micro- hipo- over- 2) Compounding: home banking, kiss-and-tell, e-mail, e-text, e-money, store-card, meathead.3) conversion: to box, to cowboy, to greenlight, to office.4) blending: hoolivan, zootigue, videolog5) back-formation: goth, teen, hood6) semantic derivation: returner, answere, antivirus, September people

7) borrowing: French, Japanese, Spanish, Portugese, Russian.

19. British and American lexicography. Main types of English dictionaries

Lexicography is the science and practice of compiling dictionaries and describing them.

All dictionaries are traditionally divided into encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries.

Encyclopedic dictionaries are thing book, the deal with concept reflecting different objects and phenomena, their relationships and so on.

Linguistic dictionaries are word-books. they list word of the language and give other linguistic facts. Besides these two types now there exists the so-called cultural dictionaries. They combine their information of two types both encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries.

Linguistic dictionaries can be uni-lingual or explanatory and by-lingual or translation.

The diachronic shows the history of the word and reflects its development up to the present moment.

One of the most famous dictionaries is the OED-20

Synchronic dictionaries are disrupted dictionary. They show either the present day meaning and usage of words or those meaning which the words had at a certain historical period.

There are general and special dictionaries. General represent the vocabulary as a whole. Special dictionaries cover a specific part of the vocabulary; There are synonyms and antonyms, dictionaries of neologism and slang, pronouncing and so on

There are glossaries and concordances. Glossaries explain term or difficult words, may be archaism, different branches of knowledge.

Concordances record the complete vocabulary of some author. EG: there are concordances to the works of W. Shakespeare.

And finally there are ideographic dictionaries and thesaurus. These dictionary group words according to the concepts expressed. They supply a word or words by which a given idea may be expressed.

Task of lexicology: systematization of the lexicon. Lexicology and lexicography are different in the degree of systematization of the lexicon.

Lexicology and lexicography have the same subject of study.

The biggest dictionaries

1. Oxford Engl. Dict.2. Webster’s

PUBLISHING HOUSESOxford, Collins, Longman, Chambers, Cambridge.

American lexicology There are 3 main dict.: Webster’s 3^rd new intonation dict. Of the English lang., Webster’s college dict., American heritage dict., Phunk and Wognals dict. Dictionary typology

1. Encyclopedic dict.(Britanic, Word Encyclopidia)

2. Linguistic dict. – general dict. (the word list is not restricted)- restricted dict./ specialized dict.

Monolingual (mainly explanatory)/ bilingual (translation dict., but cont. explonation)/multiling.

Synchronic dict / diachronic dict

0. Some basic problems of dictionary compiling

Two problems: the number of the words, the list of words to be included in a dictionary. The problem of the choice of words is connected with the problem of the norm of the language it may be included into a dictionary.

Stages of lexicographer’s work:

1) the selection of lexical units for inclusion form of the language, archaic units, technical terms, dialectisms, colloquialisms,and so on. It depends on the type of the dictionary.

2) their arrangement, 3) the setting of the entries dict. differ in their type,size,structure. The most complicated type of entry is that found in explanatory dictionaries.

4 ) the selection and arrangement (grouping) of word-meanings

5) the definition of meanings

6) illustrative material

7) supplementary material

In spite of the great variety of linguistic dictionaries their composition has many features in common.

three parts:1)Introduction and Guide to the use’ of the dictionary 2) supplementary material valuable for language learners.

In explanatory dictionaries there are appendixes(geographical names, foreign words and expressions, forenames)

In translation dictionaries there’s no g.names and so on, but it contains the rules of pronunciation,and some grammar.

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