Unlike nearly all his contemporaries, Albert Einstein thought quantum mechanics would give way to a classical theory. Some researchers nowadays are inclined to agree By George Musser

WAS EINSTEIN RIGHT?*[1]

Unlike nearly all his contemporaries, Albert Einstein thought quantum mechanics would give way to a classical theory. Some researchers nowadays are inclined to agree By George Musser

The Author

George Musser exists in a quantum superposition of staff writer and staff editor.

WORD COMBINATIONS

To doubt smb`s greatness to supersede a theory

To make an effort/redouble one`s effort to overcome limitations

To eclipse one`s scientific rationality in the pursuit of a theory

To walk down the same road to offer a reason for smth

To yield to a fundamental theory compelling conceptual foundations

A theoretical framework to exceed the limit

To be a matter of time an obvious response to smth

To be the first to do smth hidden variables

To fail to do smth to obey the law

To provide a way to do smth to look random

To trigger a collapse to propose doing smth

The idea derives from not to mention

The randomness of smth rather than the other way round

A coin toss to handle a problem

I. Read the questions and find answers in the text that follows.

1. What does Einstein`s idea of a unified theory suggest?

2. What are the pros and cons of the quantum theory as a framework of the unified theory?

Einstein has become such an icon that it sounds sacrilegious to suggest he was wrong. Even his notorious “biggest blunder” merely reinforces his aura of infallibility: the supposed mistake turns out to explain astronomical observations quite nicely [see “A Cosmic Conundrum,” by Lawrence M. Krauss and Michael S. Turner, p.71]. But if most laypeople are scandalized by claims that Einstein may have been wrong, most theoretical physicists would be much more startled if he had been right.

Although no one doubts the man`s greatness, physicists wonder what happened to him during the quantum revolution of the 1920s and 1930s. Textbooks and biographies depict him as the quantum`s deadbeat dad. In 1905 he helped to bring the basic concepts into the world, but as quantum mechanics matured, all he seemed to do was wag his finger. He made little effort to build up the theory and much to tear it down. A reactionary mysticism – embodied in his famous pronouncement, “I shall never believe that God plays dice with the world” – appeared to eclipse his scientific rationality.

Estranged from the quantum mainstream, Einstein spent his final decades in quixotic pursuit of a unified theory of physics. String theorists and others who later took up that pursuit vowed not to walk down the same road. Their assumption has been that when the general theory of relativity (which describes gravity) meets quantum mechanics (which handles everything else), it is relativity that must give way. Einstein`s masterpiece, though not strictly “wrong”, will ultimately be exposed as mere approximation.

Collapsing Theories

In recent years, though, as physicists have redoubled their efforts to grok quantum theory, a growing number have come to admire Einstein`s position. “This guy saw more deeply and more quickly into the central issues of quantum mechanics than many give him credit for”, says Christopher Fuchs of Bell Labs. Some even agree with Einstein that the quantum must eventually yield to a more fundamental theory. “We shouldn`t just assume quantum mechanics is going to make it through unaltered,” says Raphael Bousso of the University of California at Berkley.

Those are strong words, because quantum mechanics is the most successful theoretical framework in the history of science. It has superseded all the classical theories that preceded it, except for general relativity, and most physicists think its total victory is just a matter of time. After all, relativity is riddled with holes – black holes. It predicts that stars can collapse to infinitesimal points but fails to explain what happens then. Clearly, the theory is incomplete. A natural way to overcome its limitations would be to subsume it in a quantum theory of gravity, such as string theory.

Still, something is rotten in the state of quantumland, too. As Einstein was among the first to realize, quantum mechanics, too, is incomplete. It offers no reason for why individual physical events happen, provides no way to get at objects` intrinsic properties and has no compelling conceptual foundations. Moreover, quantum theory turns the clock back to a pre-Einsteinian conception of space and time. It says, for example, that an eight-liter bucket can hold eight times as much as a one-liter bucket. That is true in everyday life, but relativity cautions that the eight-liter bucket can ultimately hold only four times as much – that is, the true capacity of buckets goes up in proportion to their surface area rather than their volume. This restriction is known as the holographic limit. When the contents of the buckets are dense enough, exceeding the limit triggers a collapse to a black hole. Black holes may thus signal the breakdown not only of relativity but also of quantum theory (not to mention buckets).

The obvious response to an incomplete theory is to try to complete it. Since the 1920s, several researchers have proposed rounding out quantum mechanics with “hidden variables.” The idea is that quantum mechanics actually derives from classical mechanics rather than the other way round. Particles have definite positions and velocities and obey Newton`s laws (or their relativistic extension). They appear to behave in funky quantum ways simply because we don`t, or can`t, see this underlying order. “In these models, the randomness of quantum mechanics is like a coin toss,” says Carsten van de Bruck of the University of Sheffield in England. “It looks random, but it`s not really random. You could write down a deterministic equation.”

III. Vocabulary Notes

(Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners)

to alter – (verb) 1. to make smth or smb different; 2. to become different

to caution – (verb) to warn; caution (noun) – careful thought to avoid risks or danger

to compel – (verb) to force smb to do smth; compelling – (adj.) 1. interesting or exciting enough to keep your attention completely; 2. able to persuade smb to do smth or persuade them that smth is true – compelling evidence, compelling conceptual foundations

to depict – (verb) to describe smb or smth using words or pictures, to portray; depiction – (noun) portrayal

to embody – (verb) 1. to be the best possible example of a particular idea, quality or principle; 2. to include smth; embodiment – (noun)

estranged (adj.) – alienated – feeling that you don`t belong to a particular society; estrangement (noun)

to grok – (verb) to look into the problem closely

funky – (adj.) fashionable in a way that is unusual and shows a lot of imagination

inclined to do smth – (verb) to feel like doing smth (e.g.: I am inclined to agree with you)

infallible (adj) – impeccable – not capable of making mistakes; infallibility (noun) – impeccability

an issue – (noun) 1. an argument, an important topic for discussion; 2. publication of a special edition

notorious (adj.) famous for smth bad; – notoriety (noun) bad glory

a pronouncement – (noun) an official public statement

pursuit – (noun) of smth – the action of looking for or trying to find smth, a quixotic pursuit – (noun) the ideas that are quixotic are not practical and usually do not succeed (Don Quixote); to pursue – (verb) to follow a course of actions

to reinforce – (verb) 1. to make an idea, belief or feeling stronger (e.g.: the latest figures reinforce the view that economic growth is slowing); reinforcement – (noun) the process of reinforcing smth

to riddle – to make many holes in smth: to be riddled with bullets; to be riddled with mistakes

sacrilegious (adj.) not showing respect for a holy place, idea etc; - sacrilege [`sekrilidз] (noun)

to scandalize – (verb) – to shock smb by doing smth they consider is not proper or immoral

to startle – (verb) to make a person feel suddenly frightened or surprised by smth; startled – (adj.) frightened or surprised by smth

to subsume in/into smth – (verb) to include smth in a particular group

to supersede – (verb) to replace

to underlie – (verb) to be a real or basic cause of or reason for smth

to vow – (verb) to pledge, to swear, to promise, to declare smth solemnly; a vow – (noun)

to wonder – (verb) to think about smth, because you want to know more facts about it

to yield – (verb) to produce smth useful such as information or evidence (e.g.: the search for truth is beginning to yield fruitful results/benefits); to yield to smth – to finally agree to do what someone else wants you to do (e.g.: to yield to smb`s demands – to stop opposing smb or smth); to bend or break under pressure; yield – (noun)

Mind the difference between the two words: to be successful (e.g.: Quantum mechanics is the most successful theoretical framework in the history of science) – to achieve smth you attempted to do; successive (e.g.: He remains champion for the six successive years) – coming or happening one after another in a series;

A concept (e.g.: He can`t grasp the main concepts of mathematics) – an idea of smth that exists; a conception (e.g.: His conception of the world is very unusual and strange) – a belief about what smth is like.

IV. Comprehension Exercises

Answer the following questions.

1. What are most laypeople scandalized by?

2. How do text books and biographies depict Einstein during the quantum revolution of the 1920s and 1930s?

3. How will you interpret Einstein`s famous pronouncement: “I shall never believe that God plays dice with the world”?

4. Why does the author of the article call Einstein`s efforts to create a unified theory of physics quixotic?

5. What has been the assumption of string theorists which theory must give way?

6. How has the situation recently changed?

7. Why have a growing number of physicists come to admire Einstein`s position?

8. Why is general relativity considered to be incomplete?

9. We know that quantum mechanics is the most successful theoretical framework in the history of science. It has superseded all the classical theories that preceded it except for general relativity and most physicists think that its total victory is just a matter of time. Still, quantum mechanics, too, is incomplete. Will you explain, why?

10. What is the idea of “hidden variables”?

[1] Scientific American, September, 2004, pp.88-89

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