SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
1. The secondary parts of the sentence are: the object, the attribute, and the adverbial modifier.
As has already been stated (See “Unextended and Extended Sentences,” p. 329) the secondary parts of the sentence may be associated not only with the primary parts.— the subject and the predicate, but with any secondary part as well.
2. The structure of an extended sentence may be graphically represented as follows:
predicate
| hides |
| |
|
| ||
adv. modifier
subject
A... mist
attribute
I
object
adv. modifier
A white mist hides the bay sometimes until noon... (Maurier.) subject predicate
object
The windows
attribute
of the drawing-room
the garden
The windows of the drawing-room opened on to a balcony overlooking the garden. (Mansfield.)
THE OBJECT
1. The object is a secondary part of the sentence which stands in close relation to a verb, completing, restricting or in any other way modifying its meaning. The object refers to a) a finite verb — the predicate of the sentence or b) to a non-finite part of the verb — the infinitive, gerund or participle in any of their functions in the sentence:
a)...the car brought his father and mother home. (Galsworthy.) The old lady looked at the child... (Jerome). The afternoon was devoted to sewing. (Bront§.)
b) He strolled down the new rose garden to meet them. (Galsworthy.) The gardeners had been up since dawn, moving the lawns and sweeping them... (Mansfield.) “It had been just splendid meeting you here.'’ (Galsworthy.)
2. Some adjectives and (rarely) nouns of verbal or adjectival nature (promise, surprise, hope, doubt, trust, possibility, certainty, etc.J may also have an object:
Adjectives:
Tom was good to her. (Eliot.) He was conscious of having acted very fairly. (Eliot.) He was very fond of opera...(Gal sworthy.) The sky was full of stars... (Conrad.) Hans was clever at carving in wood... (Dodge.) There was a wind like ice. (Mansfield.) Hans was delighted with his skates... (Dodge.) Everybody was tip-top full with happiness. (Lawrence.)
Nouns:
It was simply his love for Catherine, his only child, that prompted his anxiety in this case. (Gaskell.) Beatrice remembered her promise of a wedding present. (Maurier.) She sought protection from the rain under a big tree. Our trust in his energy was justified.
3. The object may be expressed by:
a) A n о u n:
In a few weeks she had grubbed out the weeds and cleared the neglected paths. (Cronin.)
b) A pronoun:
He gazed at her in some surprise. (Cronin.)
c) A numeral:
They found the two stretched side by side on their deckchairs. (Mazo de la Roche.)
d) A substantivized adjective:
“I’ll do my best to make you comfortable.” (Gaskell.)
e) An infinitive:
He had promised to join her before the summer... (Aldridge.)
f) A gerund:
They talked of going somewhere else afterwards. (Dreiser.)
g) A syntactical word-combination:
“You’ll see a good deal of that child... (Jerome.) He watched the two of them... (Galsworthy.) “I have avoided saying one word to either of you or to Esther,” said Mr. Jarn- dyce. (Dickens.) “...they have quite a number of girls about your age here. (Cusack.)
h) A complex object (see “The Complex Object”, p. 371)
Kinds of Objects
In Modern English we find the following kinds of objects:
1. A noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called a direct object. The direct object is the direct receiver or product of the action denoted by the transitive verb.
2. A verb which is transitive in English and requires a direct object does not always correspond to a transitive verb with a direct object (accusative case) in the Russian language. As we have already seen, there are more transitive verbs in English than in Russian:
I help her (direct object) — Я помогаю ей (indirect object, dative case). I addressed her (direct)-—Я обратился к ней (indirect prepositional object, dative case).
Laura selected some letters from the bundle and began to read them. (Twain.) She turned her head, and saw me. (Galsworthy.) Mr. Nelson... opened his morning paper. (Galsworthy.) He took a candle, lighted it, and went to his bedroom. (Galsworthy.)...he picked black-berries. (Hemingway.)
3. The direct object immediately follows the transitive verb which governs it (if there is no indirect object; see also points 4, 5, 6):
“I’ve known these people a long time.” (Cronin.) The clerk came in, and shut the door after him... (Dickens.) Jan answered the doctor’s questions reluctantly... (Cusack.) He saw her into the car. (Galsworthy.)
4. The direct object is sometimes separated from the transitive verb by a prepositional object or adverbial modifier. This is often the case when the group of the object is rather lengthy:
Felix saw on the branch of an apple-tree a tiny brown bird with a little beak sticking out and a little tail sticking up. (Galsworthy.) She held in one hand a threaded needle... (Galsworthy.) He pulled out of his pocket a black old horse- chestnut hanging on a string. (Lawrence.) They found at the top of the hill a hidden wild field, two sides of which were backed by the wood... (Lawrence.)
5. Such adverbs as about, back, down, in, off, on, out, over, through, up, etc., when used as the second element of a phraseological unit (verb + ad verb) are usually placed before the direct object when the latter is a noun or one of the longer pronouns, such as each other, one another, something, somebody, etc. Personal pronouns always precede the adverb. (Take it off. Put them on):
Fleur flung back her hair. (Galsworthy.) “Look!” She held up her blossom in the moonlight. (Galsworthy.) He
put the receiver down. (Cusack.) She had on a white frock, very simple and well made... (Galsworthy.) He had put on a handsome tie... (Lawrence.) The noise woke him up.
6. The direct object precedes the verb which governs it:
a) In exclamatory sentences:
“What delightful weather we are having!” (Wilde.)
b) In special questions which refer to the direct object:
“What can I do for you?” (Galsworthy.) “What excuse shall I make?” (Irving.) “What reason have you to be merry?” (Dickens.)
c) When the object stands as a link connecting a sentence with a previous sentence:
There was another state farm in the district. That state farm we decided to visit on the following day.
d) For the sake of emphasis:
Talent Mr. Micawber has, capital Mr. Micawber has not. (Dickens.) Honey she had in plenty out of her own hives, but treacle was what her soul desired. (Hard y.) Misty mountains they saw and on their flanks the palm-crowned fortifications of old time agaiiast the pirates. (L. Sinclair.)
When the direct object is emphasized and placed at the head of the sentence, the inverted order of the subject and predicate may be found. In such cases with notional verbs, the verb to do is introduced:
Many sweet little appeals did Miss Sharp make to him about the dishes at dinner. (Thackeray.) Not another word does Mr. Bucket say... (Dickens.)
7.Verbs with two direct objects. The following verbs take two direct objects: to ask, to answer, to take, to envy, to hear, to forgive:
I asked James a few questions. (I asked a few questions. I asked James.) Answer me this question. (Answer me. Answer this question.) Take the boy a long walk. (Take the boy. Take a long walk.) Forgive him his rudeness. (Forgive him. Forgive his rudeness.) Hear me one word. (Hear me. Hear one word.) They envy us our successes. (They envy us. They envy our successes.) “I almost envy you the pleasure,..” (Austen.)
1. Some transitive verbs may take two objects: a direct object an indirect object.
The indirect object usually denotes the person towards whom action of the finite verb is directed.
Direct Object у sent a telegram.
bicycle.
postman brought the letters. The postman brought us (indirect)
the letters.
< sold his bicycle.
Direct and Indirect
They sent us (indirect) a telegram.
Dick sold John (indirect) his
offered his help.
He offered them (indirect) his help.
2. If the indirect object is a noun, it is in the common case; t is a pronoun, it is in the objective case. Pronouns are imoner as indirect objects than nouns. The indirect object cor- londs in Russian to an object in the dative:
He gave me a ticket to the theatre. — Он дал мне билет в театр.
3. The indirect object has the following characteristics:
a) It cannot be used without the direct object. 5 is quite natural because the indirect object is an object of a isitive verb and a transitive verb requires a direct object to iplete its meaning: I sent him a letter yesterday. It is possible >ay: I sent a letter yesterday, or What did you send yesterday?
not: I sent him (ему) yesterday, or To whom (кому) did you i yesterday?
He lent her (indirect object) books (direct object). (Maxwell.) “I want to play you (indirect object) my favourite piece’’ (direct object). (La Mure.) “Will you do me another favour?” (Mckenna.) “They give you everything you want, I hope?” (Dickens.) “Show me a room, and bring me a pen and paper,” said he... (Kingsley.)...he handed Pasiance a roll of music... (Galsworthy.)
b) The indirect object has a fixed place in the sen-:e — it precedes the direct object:
John Ford showed me all his latest improvements... (Galsworthy.) Davy gave him the towel... (Aldridge.) “Give me my box and money, will you?” I cried bursting into tears. (Dickens.) He handed her the paper. (Dreiser.)
с) The indirect object follows the direct object, if the direct object is the pronoun it and the indirect object another personal pronoun:
“I can show it (direct object) you (indirect object) from the copse... (Galsworthy.) “A gentleman gave it me.” (Dickens.) “I’ll give it you this afternoon, Sam.” (Dickens.)
Note. — The prepositional indirect object may also be used here:
“Give it to me.” (Ha *dy.)
4. There are cases when the indirect object is preceded by the preposition to (the fo-phrase); then it is a prepositional indirect object.
The prepositional indirect object (the /о-phrase) follows the direct object:
He gave all his money to his mother. (Lawrence.) She handed the note to Bart. (Cusack.) I saw Mark Antony offer him a crown... Then he offered it to him again. (Shakespeare.)
5. If the indirect object expresses the person for whose benefit the action is performed, the /or-phrase is used:
“He wants to write a play for me.” (Mansfield.) “I am buying some toys without paint on for my niece.” (Galsworthy.) “I’ll telephone. They must find a room for me. (Galsworthy).
6. A transitive verb may be used absolutely, i. e., without its direct object (see “Subjective and Objective Verbs,” p. 130); then the prepositional indirect object (the fo-phrase) is used:
I shall read to you with pleasure. (Compare: I shall read you a story.) Never did I weary of reading to him... (Вгоп1ё.)
The verb to write when used absolutely may be followed by an indirect object with or without the preposition to:
I shall write to you (or you) directly I arrive there. On my being settled at Doctor Strong’s I wrote to her again... (Dickens.)...he had written to them... (Cusack.) “Please write to me as often as you can...” (Gordon.) Won’t you write me and tell me how you all are and what you are doing? (Dreiser.) To Roberta, since he would not write her, he was telephoning briefly... (Dreiser.)
The prepositional indirect object (the fo-phrase) is used:
a) When emphasis is intended:
I shall show the book to you, but not to him. “Give the tray to me, I will carry it in.” (Bront§.)
b) If the direct object is a pronoun and the indirect object a noun:
She sent him to the dean. He gave them to the secretary. I gave it to the students. Send it to the post-office. It was easy to tell them to Magda. (Cusack.)
c) If both objects are personal pronouns:
“She said you gave them to her.” (Dreiser.) “A gipsy gave him to me,” said Tod: “Best dog that ever lived.” (Galsworthy.) He gathered a half-blown rose, the first on the bush, and offered it to me. (Вгоп1ё.) “...name them to me.” (Dickens.)
d) When the indirect object stands at the head of the sentence:
To which of these two comrades did you give the book? To whom did you give it? (or colloquial: Whom did you give it to?)
The prepositional indirect object may be placed at the head of the sentence for the sake of emphasis:
To him I gave the order, not to you.
e) When the indirect object stands at the head of an attributive clause:
“1 have no friends to whom I can tell everything... (Eliot.)
fj. With the following verbs: to announce, to ascribe, to con- tribute, to attribute, to communicate, to introduce, to submit, to repeat, to dedicate, to disclose, to dictate, to interpret, to point out, to suggest, to open, to explain, to describe:
They introduced the newly arrived delegate to the Committee. He repeated to me all he had told уои before. They announced to the audience the decision adopted on the previous night. He dictated to me his letter to his friend. The professor interpreted to us the dubious passages of Hamlet. We pointed out to the delegates the benefits of collective farming. The Soviet Government has opened to all peoples of our country the doors of the higher educational institutions. Cedric had explained to me the. reason for Jack’s taking a science degree. (Braine.) She enlivened our journey by describing to us... the various pains she had in her back. (Jerome.)
Some intransitive verbs take an object similar in meaning to the verb and of the same root. Such an object is called the cognate object:
The child smiled the smile and laughed the laugh of contentment in its own language... (Bennett.)...Clare slept the sleep of one who has spent a night in a car. (Galsworthy.) She sighed a sigh of ineffable satisfaction... (Bront§.) “...my aim is to live an unselfish life.” (Mazo de la Roche.) She smiled a smile and up she hopped, and on drove Tony. (Hardy-)
Sometimes the cognate object is similar to the verb only in meaning:
They fought a good battle. They went a walk.
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way... (Gray.) But I stayed out a few minutes longer with Adele and Pilot, ran a race with her... (Brontё.)
The cognate object occupies a place intermediate between an object and an adverbial modifier, expressing rather adverbial than objective relations:
He laughed a hearty laugh. — He laughed heartily. He lived a happy life.—He lived happily.
The construction with a cognate object is more emphatic than with an adverbial modifier.
4. The Prepositional Object
1. Certain verbs and adjectives govern their object by means of a preposition. Such an object is called a prepositional object. It is not always easy to tell whether a prepositional phrase stands for an object, or an adverbial modifier.
The prepositional phrase is an object when it denotes a certain person or thing connected with the action expressed by the verb.
The prepositional phrase is an adverbial modifier wrhen- it serves to indicate the time, place, manner, etc., of an action.
This difference of meaning is shown in the question put to an object, or to an adverbial modifier. Asking of an object, we use a pronoun (who, what, etc.):
With whom did you go to the concert? — I went with my brother (an object).
We use an adverb when the question refers to an adverbial modifier:
How did you manage to lift that heavy box? — I did it with great difficulty (an adverbial modifier).
2. Sometimes one and the same prepositional phrase may be interpreted in two ways:
Behind whom did the girl stand? — She stood behind me (an object — the speaker is interested in the person behind whom the girl stood). Where did the girl stand? — She stood behind me (an adverbial modifier — the speaker is interested in the place where the girl stood. The answer might have been “She stood here.”)
What do you keep those instruments in? — I keep them in a glass box (an object). Where do you keep those instruments? I keep them in a glass box (an adverbial modifier.)
What did you open that box with?—-I did it with a knife (an object). How did you manage to open that box?—'I did it with a knife (an adverbial modifier).
Compare with the Russian:
За кем девочка сидела? — Она сидела за мной (дополнение). Где девочка сидела? — Она сидела за мной (обстоятельство-ответ мог бы. быть: Она сидела здесь).
Here are some examples of the prepositional object:
I fought for freedom, for the brotherhood of man. (Gordon.) “You may rely on me in that matter.” (Galsworthy.) Hans was delighted with his new skates... (Dodge.) “Jon,...telephone to the Dragon for a car.” (Galsworthy.) The girl smelled at her roses. (Galsworthy.)
3. Nouns derived from verbs and adjectives may have corresponding prepositional objects:
“Is there any objection to my seeing her?” (Galsworthy.) She showed great interest in her pedagogical work. The Third Congress of the International Journalists’ Organization obliged all progressive journalists to wage a vigorous struggle against the armaments drive in all its forms, for reduction of armaments, against any preparations for a new war, without slackening the struggle for banning the atomic weapon.
4. Not only intransitive but also transitive verbs may have a- prepositional object:
“Bring her with you this afternoon, Aaron,” said Eppie... (Elio t.) Mary opened the door for me, and shut it behind me. (Вгоп1ё.) She helped him with his English... (London.)
In a number of cases verbs and adjectives depending on the meaning of the sentence, may govern their objects. by means of different prepositions:
Everybody looked at the newcomer. I am looking for my pencil. She looks after the children. I called to her to come. We must call on her. This matter calls for prompt action. The teacher called upon me to-day. I was grateful to her for her kindness. I am angry with him (at his rudeness.) I don’t care about it. I don’t care for such people.
5. The Complex Object
1. An object (direct or prepositional) may be expressed by an infinitival, participial or gerundial complex:
He watched her ring the bell, he watched the maid come in. (Galsworthy.) You’ve made me fee! quite sad, Sylvia. (Mackenzie.) We saw behind us thousands and thousands of white gulls dipping, wheeling, brushing the water with their wings... (Galsworthy.) “What do you think of my going over to visit Aunt Augusta?” (Mazo de la Roche.) He found her sitting at the breakfast-table and the meal began almost in silence. (Hardy.)
2. A complex object may also comprise a noun or pronoun followed by a predicative expressed by an adjective or noun:
He found sleep difficult that night. (London.) We thought this intention very noble in Steerforth... (Dickens.)...I found the open page still legible by the pale glimmer of day. (G i s- sing.) I woke at six the next morning; and found George awake too. (Jerome.)
I prefer the window open. I consider this picture a masterpiece of art.
Sometimes the predicative to the object is closely connected with the predicate verb — as a result of the action performed by the subject the object assumes the state denoted by the predicative: They painted the wall white (= the wall became white). The close connection of the predicative to the object with the predicate verb is seen from the fact that the predicative is often placed immediately after the verb:[1]
Kate knelt and burst open the sideboard... (Mansfield.) She swept the floor clean. They elected him chairman. They appointed him secretary of the commission. They boiled the eggs hard.
“I’ve made you unhappy.” (Maurier.) At last the day turned her waning candle pale, and she fell asleep. (Dickens.) They called the baby Arthur. (Lawrence.) “Get the coffee ready.” (Вгоп1ё.)
1. The pronoun it is used to point back to a preceding subordinate clause or to an independent sentence:
If he gets home by eight o’clock, I call it good luck. So we decided to have a special celebration of Mother’s Day. We thought it a fine idea. (Leacock.)
Note. — Frequently, however, the adverb so is used instead of it referring to the contents of the preceding statement, especially after verbs of saying, thinking, hearing, fearing, hoping, doing:
Did he receive your letter? — I think so. Will he keep his promise?—1 hope so. I shall send it to-morrow, if I can do so.
2. Peculiar is the use of it as an object with vague meaning after intransitive verbs:
We can walk it perfectly well. He never comes a moment too soon, and at the theatre often runs it even closer than that.
Here belong also verbs, converted from adjectives or nouns, which are always used with the indefinite it. Such verbs often impart a peculiar liveliness to the description:
The meeting ended late, so we had to foot it home. Pioneers and research parties generally have to rough it.
We will battle it together. (Dickens.) When the ship is decked out in all her canvas... how she seems to lord it over the deep. (Irving.) We therefore decided that we would sleep out on fine nights; and hotel it, and inn it, and pub it, like respectable folks, when it was wet. (Jerome.) I’ll train it as far as the twopence will take me and I’ll tramp the rest. (Shaw.)
3. Some verbs (such as to find, to think, to consider, etc.) may be followed by a complex object with an objective predicative the nominal part of which is expressed by an infinitive or a gerund (often forming a complex). In this construction the introductory pronoun it is used to represent the nominal part which follows the objective predicative:
I think it impossible to go there to-day (ср. I think this task impossible).
“I take it as very kind of you,” he said, “to have spoken to me.” (Galsworthy.) He was gradually making it possible to earn a livelihood by his art. (Lawrence.)...his long legs made it difficult for anyone to get in. (Galsworthy.) Coming out of the theatre, we found it utterly impossible to get
a taxicab... (Galsworthy.) He found it very hard rowing against the current.
The nominal part of the complex object after the verbs to think, to find, etc. may also be expressed by a subordinate clause:
Maggie found it probable that the small fish would come to her hook, and the large ones to Tom’s. (Eliot.)
THE ATTRIBUTE
The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence which denotes the qualities of a person or thing expressed by a noun (or pronoun) in any of its functions in the sentence. The modified part of the sentence may have several attributes of various kinds:
The kitchen was a white-washed room with rafters. (Galsworthy.) They spoke of their native village in dear old North Wessex... (Hardy.) A whole day’s walk yesterday with no plan; just a long ramble of hour after hour, entirely enjoyable. (Gissing.)...there came through the open door the heavy scent of the lilac, or the more delicate perfume of the pink- flowering thorn. (Galsworthy.)
An attribute may be expressed by:
1. An a d j e с t i v e:
a) An adjective used as an attribute usually precedes the head-noun. If a noun has more than one modifying adjective preceding it, the one most closely connected with it comes next to it:
A little, round clock ticked solemnly. (Galsworthy.) His firm, well-coloured cheeks, with their neat. brown moustaches, and his round, well-opened, clear grey eyes, wore a reassuring appearance of good health. (Galsworthy.)...the distant trees were lost in the gloom of a starless night. (Collins.)
An adjective denoting nationality or origin is placed before an adjective denoting material:
An English tweed coat. A Japanese silk shawl.
b) Adjectives with suffixes -able, -ible, which are usually derived; from verbs, are also placed in post-position owing to their predicative character:
It is the only thing notable (= which may be noted.) He is the only person reliable (= who may be relied upon.)
He sat looking on, pen in hand, with one of the most loving smiles imaginable. (Dickens.) I feel a solitude unutterable, yet nothing akin to desolation... (Gissing.)
The adjective possible which is not derived from a verb has the same predicative force:
It is the only solution possible (= which is possible.)
Placed before the head-noun these adjectives have no predicative force:
It is a sensible suggestion. She is an unreasonable person.
c) Some adjectives of French origin are placed after the noun which they modify in accordance with the position of the adjective used as an attribute in the French language.
The only people present were Dolton, Lucy, and Lucy’s husband... (Galsworthy.) There with Marlow’s signature the letter proper ended. (Conrad.)
The same in: the first person singular, the second person plural,
etc.
d) An adjective used as an attribute to a pronoun always follows it:
I should like to have something interesting to read. You must ask those best informed. Is there anything new in this information? Everyone present turned reproving eyes upon me... (Maurier.) “I was not prepared for anything so beautiful...” (Dickens.)
e) Adjectives with the prefix a- such as alive, awake, asleep, afraid, etc. always follow their hea d-n о u n:
I am the most happy man alive. He spoke like a man afraid. There were few passengers astir. (Dickens.)
2. A participle:
A participle used as an attribute may stand before its lie a d-n bun; but more often it is placed in post-position usually in the function of a detached attribute (see “Detached Secondary Parts of the Sentence”, p. 386).
I see trees laden with ripening fruit. (В г о n t ё.) The frozen ground was hard as stone. (Dodge.) The fresh morning air, flowing through my open window, cooled and composed me. (Collin s.)
3. A pronoun:
An attributive pronoun is placed before the noun which it modifies:
Her face was close to the window pane... (Galsworthy.)...a few white clouds floated amid the blue... (Gissing.) Every bough was swinging in the wind, every spring bird calling... (Galsworthy.) “What excuse shall I make?” (Irving.)
4. A numeral:
A numeral is placed before its head-noun.
Two or three days went by. (Maugham.) Nineteen persons were gathered here. (Hardy.) The two white swans came majestically by... (Galsworthy.) Ours was the first boat... (Jerome.)
5. A noun in the possessive case:
In Modern English the possessive case is used only in the function of an attribute. A noun in the possessive case precedes the noun it modifies, thus occupying the usual position of an attribute in Modern English.
They were the sons of Thomas Court, my mother’s youngest brother. (Mazo de la Roche.) There were no words for Caleb’s emotion. (Dickens.) A window in his Uncle’s old home blazed like a jewel in the sun’s last rays between the poplar trees. (Galsworthy.)
6. An adjectivized noun (see “Adjectivized Nouns,” p. 44): An adjectivized noun is placed before the noun which it
m od i f i es.
Down in the little town a few faint points of yellow light twinkled in the mountain wind... (Galsworthy.) The sun had not quite set, and its last smoky radiance slanted into the burnished autumn woods. (Galsworthy.)...a long white cloud brushed the poplar tops beyond the water. (Galsworthy.) It was a delicious winter night. (Henry.)
7. A noun (or pronoun) with a preposition (a prepositional phrase.) A noun with a preposition used as an attribute follows the noun it modifies:
The bough of an apple-tree below the window was broken. (Galsworthy.)...no clue to his whereabouts could be found. (Kingsley.)...a girl in a cotton dress and straw hat ran up to him... (Voynich.) A murmur in the room attracted his attention. (Joyce.) There was sunlight upon the blinds, that pure gold of the earliest beam... (Gissing.)
The preposition of is often dropped with nouns of colour, price, size, age, etc.:
A room the same size as yours was shown to us. In came a little boy the same age as Peter. I need a plank the right width.
Care should be taken not to consider every prepositional phrase following a noun as an attribute to that noun because the prepositional group may be connected with the predicate in the function of a prepositional object or adverbial modifier:
The letter from my brother gave me much pleasure (attribute.) I have received a letter from my brother (prepositional object.) He wrote me a letter from Leningrad (adverbial modifier.)
8. An attributive group of words:
An attributive group of words precedes the noun it modifies:
John was of the look-before-you leap, the think-before-you- speak sort. (VacheJl.) “The never-to-be-forgotten Johnny?” asked Mr. Brown. (Joyce.)...a very small and not-over-par- ticularly-taken-care-of boy. (Dickens.) He went on in a more- matter-of-fact tone... (Chesterton.) He could see the soft blue-grey-balloon-shaped oaks. (Galsworthy.) Such an aggressive, cock-sure, you-be-damned fellow. (Kipling.) Amidst the general hum of mirth and conversation..., there was a little man with a puffy say-nothing-to-me,-or-Pll-contradict-you sort of countenance, who remained very quiet... (Dickens.)
9. An infinitive:
An infinitive used as an attribute follows its head-noun: “O,” replied Lally offhandedly, “I’ve a lot of things to see to...” (Coppard.) “There is only one thing to be done. (Cronin.) “I have no time to lose.” (Вгоп1ё.) There were few sounds to hear, for it was early in January and the college was empty and quiet. (Snow.)
10. A gerund with a preposition:
A gerund with a preposition used as an attribute follows the noun it modifies:
The pleasure of seeing her again was intensified extraordinary by the welcome in her eyes... (Cronin.) The rain showed no sign of stopping... (Maugham.) Hand in hand with reading, he had developed the habit of making notes... (London.) I gave him minute directions for finding the residence of Mr. Barkis... (Dickens.)
11. An adverb:
An adverb used as an attribute follows its head-noun (or noun-pronoun):
Presently there came the sound of a motor-car in the little street below. (Galsworthy.)...birds were chirping in the trees outside. (Cusack.)...a big detached cloud floated dark and still, casting a slaty shadow on the water beneath... (Conrad.)...all without was quiet. All within was quiet also... (Greenwood.)
A whole syntactical w о r d-c о m b i n a t i о n:
...a girl with cheeks like poppies... comes out and stands in the doorway. (Galsworthy.) (a girl with cheeks has no sense.) He was a young man of middle height... (Galsworthy.) He was a man with a round white face... (Galsworthy.)
12. A Complex Attribute. An attribute may be expressed by an infinitival, or gerundial complex, or a complex introduced by with:
He spread a rug for his wife to sit on. (Galsworthy.) It was a long story for Jacob to tell, and he stopped to rest. (Dodge.) The day soon came for our going. (Dickens.) I wrote again: there was a chance of my first letter having missed. (ВгопТё.) He... gave up wine and cigars,. drank a special kind of coffee with no coffee in it. (Galsworthy.)
The Apposition
The apposition is a special kind of attribute expressed by a noun (sometimes a pronoun) which denotes the same person or thing as the head-noun.
There are two kinds of appositions:
a) a detached (loose) apposition and b) an un detached (close) apposition.
a) A detached (loose) apposition (обособленное приложение). A detached (loose) apposition follows the head- noun in a rather loose connection and has the force of a descriptive attribute. It may modify a common noun, a proper noun and sometimes a pronoun:
All over the wall below his window white jessamine was in flower — stars, not only in the sky. (Galsworthy.) She was dressed in grey, the colour of a pigeon’s feathers... (Galsworthy.) An aeroplane droned its way over to the north, a high, silvery, smail, noisy shape. (Galsworthy.) Below the window the river in spring flood rushed down the valley, a stream of molten bronze. (Galsworthy.)
b)An undetached (close) apposition (необособленное приложение) An undetached (close) apposition enters into such close relation with its head-noun that they form a group with one stress.
The head-noun is often a proper noun, the name of a person; the apposition denotes r a n k, profession, relationship, etc.
The undetached (close) apposition precedes the head-noun, except in some phraseological combinations where the apposition fool lows the head-noun (William the Conquerer, Richard the Lion Hearted.) The stress is, on the head-noun.
“I am afraid Aunt Augusta won’t quite approve of your being here.” (Wilde.) Major Sarson looked at his watch impatiently. (Wilson.) Nurse Lloyd was openly and bitterly his enemy. (Cronin.)
In geographical names the apposition follows the head- noun. The stress is on the apposition:
The River Thames. Lake Leman. Mount Everest.
A path leads me by the winding of the river Ouse. (G i s- sing.)
The apposition follows its head-noun also in some other cases:
The opera “Ivan Susanin”. The poem “Ode to the Sky-lark”.
The steamer “Sedov”. The newspaper “Pravda”.
A special case present those instances when the head-noun — a common noun such as. city, town, isle, lake, straits, etc...— is followed by an appositive noun — a geographical proper name — preceded by the preposition of: the City of London, the isle of Man, the Straits of Dover:
He talked about his native town of Dublin. (Snow.)
THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER
1. An adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies the verb-predicate, or a verbal in any of its functions, denoting the time, place, manner, etc. of an action:
Winter set in early and unexpectedly... (Cronin.) And she walked fast between the flowers... (Galsworthy.) The thunder rumbled and crashed, travelling east along the river.
(Galsworthy.) I saw a lizard run over the crag. (Bronte.) On arriving at the garden entrance, he stopped to look at the view. (Galsworthy.)
2. Just as a subject or object may have a number of attributes, so a verb-predicate may have a number of adverbial modifiers:
They walked on silently side by side for ten minutes... (Kingsley.) Manson leaped from the train and walked quickly down the platform, searching eagerly for some sign of welcome. (Cronin.) Noah Claypole ran along the street at his swiftest pace... (Dickens.)
Besides modifying a verb an adverbial modifier (usually of degree) may modify a part of the sentence expressed by an adjective or adverb:
The Indian... was rowing very hard. (Hemingway.) “I think it’s pretty easy, Nick.” (Hemingway.)...the gardens glow, and the air is delicately sweet. (Gissing.)
3. According to their meaning adverbial modifiers may be classified as follows:
a) Adverbial modifiers of place:
A long, soft ripple of wind flowed over the com... (Galsworthy.) The lines of the mountains were sharply defined against the profound blue. (Hitchens.) They were walking eastward. (Maxwell.) The door was not fastened within... (Dickens.) Outside it was getting dark. (Hemingway.)
b) Adverbial modifiers of time:
Yesterday I passed by an elm avenue... (Gissing.) The gale had freshened since noon... and now blew with the strength of a hurricane... (Conrad.) “You’ve been working too hard lately.” (Gordon.) Martin talked for fifteen minutes with him... (London.) Before switching on the electric light he pulled down the blind and drew the heavy curtain across the window. (Joyce.)
c) Adverbial modifiers of manner or attending circumstances:
...the gardeners were busily potting out spring flowers. (Aldington.) Winter set in early and unexpectedly with a heavy fall of snow. (Cronin.) She could run like an Amazon. (Lawrence.) She started the car, and,... drove at full speed. (Galsworthy.) Around them, in the alder clumps, the primroses grew in great profusion. (Cronin.) She walked briskly. (Galsworthy.) Once more he passed my table without stopping. (Maugham.)
d) Adverbial modifiers of degree:
I was completely happy. (Galsworthy.) By this time it was getting dark and snowing pretty heavilly. (Dickens.) The sky had partly cleared, but was very gloomy... (Dickens.) The stars were very bright. (Galsworthy.) “I think it’s pretty easy, Nick.” (Hemingway.) I entirely agree with you. I quite understand you.
e) Adverbial modifiers of cause:
I was stiff with long sitting, and bewildered with the noise and motion of the coach... (Brontё.) I flushed simply from being spoken to... (Cronin.) He therefore gave his horsemen orders to advance. (Scott.) It was very interesting to me to see them together not only on account of their mutual affection, but because of the strong personal resemblance between them... (Dickens.) She told me we must part, and told me why... (Dickens.)
f) Adverbial modifiers of purpose:
She strained her ears to catch the words. (Mazo de la Roche.) Mrs. Pratt had driven to Winster to see her mother... (Jerome.) Dessie stopped for a moment to ease her back. (Caldwell.)
g)Adverbial modifiers of measure (time, distance, cost, weight):
He stood still a long while, surveying the hillside. (London.) He moved down the stream a few steps.. (London.) He was now a hundred yards from the water... (London.) Mauki no longer weighs one hundred and ten pounds. (L о n- d о n.)
h)Adverbial modifiers of result:
The unexpected offer of shelter was too unexpected to be resisted. (Dickens.) Ben was too busy to hear him now... (Aldridge.) The rest of the conversation is not important enough to be here related. (Fielding.)
i)Adverbial modifiers of condition:
In case of your absence I shall leave you a note.
j) Adverbial modifiers of concession:
Even Miriam laughed in spite of herself. (Lawrence.) Notwithstanding the cold weather, Henry Bosman’s face glowed like the heater in his chambers... (Gordon.) “We shall be friends in spite of separation...” (Eliot.)
к) Adverbial modifier of exclusion or substitution introduced by except, save, but, instead, etc. These adverbial phrases are often detached (обособлены):
She made no comment on it, except by a scornful movement of the lips. (Mazo de la Roche.) “I don’t want to move,” the man said. “There is no sense in moving except to make it easier for you.” (Hemingway.) And then instead of going to Arusha they turned left. (Hemingway.)...the Cricket on the Hearth unheard by all but her, began to chirp. (Dickens.) There was no daybreak, till long after the due hour, no light save a pale, sad glimmer at the window. (Gissing.)...he had chosen to make his living with something else instead of a pen and pencil. (Hemingway.) The birds were in the cage except the bulfinch, which had perched on his shoulder. (Galsworthy.)
Some of these phrases are intermediate between adverbial modifiers and objects (...the Cricket on the Hearth unheard by all but her... But he could hear little save the noise of laughter...)
Compare with Russian constructions in which a noun or pronoun is introduced by the prepositions кроме, вместо, etc. which can only conditionally be regarded as objects:
...Валя была не болтлива, никому не поверяла тайн, кроме своего дневника, мечтала о подвигах... (Фадеев)[2]
4. An adverbial modifier may be expressed by:
a) An adverb:
I had slept unusually well... (Gissing.) They walked silently side by side... (Kingsley.)...just then she heard a quick footstep on the stairs. (Eliot.) Hand in hand with reading he had developed the habit of making notes... (London.)
b) A noun with a preposition (a prepositional phrase):
...the old man spoke with a quiet earnestness... (Kingsley.)...he could not eat for happiness. (Joyce.) He walked away slowly into the forest. (Kingsley.)
Note that the same prepositional phrase may be used as an adverbial modifier, an object or an attribute depending on its relation to the other words in the sentence:
He takes his exercise in the open air (an adverbial modifier of place to the verb takes). Exercise in the open air is healthy (attribute to the noun exercise). He lives at the end of the village (an adverbial modifier of place to the verb lives). The house at the end of the village is a shop (an attribute to the noun house). I received a letter from my brother yesterday (a prepositional object to the verb received). The letter from my brother gave me much pleasure (an attribute to the noun letter).
c) A noun without any preposition expressing extent, distance, definite and indefinite time, price, etc.:
...she had been hours in the attic... (Eliot.) It had not been light aiS day. (Dickens.) I halted there a minute... (Brontё.) He wandered miles and miles.. (Lawrence.) She was silent a moment. (Cusack.) She walked a short distance up the road. (Cusack.)
d) A participle:
...he would stroll, watching the roses open... (Galsworthy.) He went upstairs again, tiptoeing past the door, andj entering his room, switched on the light. (Galsworthy:) Having gazed cautiously round him, and listened intently, he gently undid the fastenings of the door... (Dickens.) Having finished dinner, he sat with his cigar in a somewhat deserted lounge, turning over weekly papers... (Galsworthy.)
e) A gerund with a preposition:
On arriving at the garden entrance, he stopped to look at the gate view. (Galsworthy.) After taking her elderly cousin across, Fleur did not land at once... (Galsworthy.) After tearing the envelope open she pored over the contents for a while, absorbedly. (Henry.)
f) An infinitive:
She rose and went to the doorway to wave good-bye to him as he passed through the gate. (Lawrence.) Paul went to meet his friends the next afternoon. (Lawrence.) The old gardener... came with a little basket to feed the doves. (Galsworthy.) He was too tired to go any farther. (Hemingway.)
g) A whole syntactical word-combination:
We went home early in the evening. (Dickens.)...the sun had set three hours before... (Dickens.)...she had once before seen it long ago. (Bront§.)...all about the meadows shine in pure gold of buttercups. (Gissing.) We had started from Yarmouth at three o’clock in the afternoon, and we were due in London about eight next morning. (Dickens.)
Notice that the indication of hours precedes the parts of the day.
A Complex Adverbial Modifier. An adverbial modifier may be expressed by an infinitival, participial or ger- undial complex:
Dusk dropped down without his noticing... (Galsworthy.) (attending circumstances.) He opened the study door, and held it for her to pass in... (Voynich.) (purpose.)...it was too chilly for him to stay there in the open. (Snow.) (result.) “How did you get out without his seeing you?” (Voynich.) (attending circumstances.)
h) Adverbial Modifiers Introduced by Subordi- native Conjunctions:
Adverbial modifiers (usually extended, but sometimes also unextended) may be introduced by subordinative conjunctions (than, if, unless, though, as if, as though, till, when, while, whether... or).
Participial phrases are often used in this function. Adverbial modifiers introduced by conjunctions are usually detached adverbial modifiers (обособленные обстоятельства) (See “The Detached Secondary Parts of the Sentence,” p. 389) They express the following adverbial relations:
a) Time:
...while working so hard he needed sea air... (Galsworthy.) When travelling, I have now and then watched the sunrise... (Gissing.) Few children can eat when excited with the thoughts of a journey... (Вгоп1ё.)
b) Comparison:
He walked as softly as the Ghost of Hamlet, and more slowly. (Dickens.)...then came another flash of lightning, brighter than the other, and a second peal of thunder louder than the first... (Dickens.) He studied me,...as though weighing up my points. (Cronin.) She rose as if to leave the room; but sat down again... (Dickens.)
c) Condition:
“Take a month, if necessary, combine business with pleasure. You owe yourself a holiday.” (Cronin.) Nobody spoke, unless spoken to... (Dickens.)...I found great, if temporary, comfort in Grandpa’s society. (Cronin.) The sound of heavy, if uncertain, footsteps above my head caused me, once or twice, to pause... (Cronin.)
d) Concession:
They stood around her though at a little distance... (Dickens.) “It is fair to-night,... though not starlit... (Вгоп1ё.) It was not a bright or splendid summer evening, though fair and soft: and the sky, though far from cloudless, was such as promised well for the future... (Вгоп1ё.)
Note.—Some grammarians consider adverbial modifiers introduced by subordinative conjunctions to be elliptical subordinate clauses.
Place of Adverbial Modifiers Expressed by Adverbs
1. The adverb has a greater freedom of position than other parts of speech and it is difficult to give fixed and definite rules regarding its position in the sentence.
2. The following rules can be given:
a) An adverb mUst not separate the direct object from the transitive verb which governs it:
I have a letter to-day... (Gissing.) Wilson shook his head meditatively. (Kingsley.)
b) An adverb can be placed between the verb and its direct object if a whole group of modifiers follows the object:
He has translated correctly some sentences from The Pickwick Club.
c) Adverbs of definite time (early, late, to-day, to-night, yesterday, to-morrow) stand at the end of the sentence; and when stressed, at the beginning:
“We shall have rain to-morrow.” (Voynich.) “I told you as much yesterday.” (Galsworthy.) “Your advice has helped me to-day.” (Meredith.) Winter set in early... (Cronin.) Yesterday I passed by an elm avenue, leading to a beautiful old house. (Gissing.) To-night the wind is loud, and rain dashes against my casement; to-morrow I shall awake to a sky of winter. (Gissing.)
d) Adverbs of indefinite time and frequency (often, seldom, sometimes, always, rarely, usually, etc.) stand before the verb, but usually follow the verbs to be, to have, can, may, must, ought:
Tom never disobeyed his father... (Eliot.) He often took Irene to the theatre... (Galsworthy.) I never thought of that till afterwards... (Dickens.) But: “I could never have thought it.” (Brontё.) You are often the last to arrive. You.must always be on time.
If emphasis is intended and the auxiliary or modal (defective) verb has a special stress, the adverb of indefinite time is placed before it.
Also with to be and to have used as notional verbs:
“I never had such a wonderful holiday in my life...” (Cusack.) “I never was more surprised,” said Mr. Domby. (Dickens.)
I never shall forget the waking, next morning... (Dickens.)
John is rarely late and you invariably are.
In a compound tense the adverb usually stands after the first auxiliary verb:
...Irene was still standing in the doorway. (Galsworthy.)...he was rarely heard to speak... (Irving.) “He is always thinking about other people.” (Maxwell.) I have just opened this window... (Bront§.)
In interrogative sentences the adverb of indefinite time is placed after the subject (auxiliary or modal [defective] verb — subject — adverb):
Are you ever in time? Must you always begin your work at nine? Can you never do it properly? Did you ever tell him the reason? Have you already spoken to her? Do you sometimes go there? Has this book already been translated?
Note. — If an interrogative pronoun is the subject of the sentence or modifies the subject, the word order is the same as that of a declarative sentence:
Who has ever been there? Who ever heard of such a thing?
e) Adverbs of degree modifying a verb occupy the same position as adverbs of indefinite time and frequency:
The sky had partly cleared... (Dickens.) Silas did not highly enjoy smoking... (Eliot.) “I hardly understand even what you mean.” (Dickens.) She scarcely knew her neighbours yet. (Lawrence.) She has fully mastered the subject.
f) Adverbs of place follow the verb or its direct object:
i He didn’t go anywhere. I saw him there yesterday. He takes his dinner here.
If a sentence contains both an adverb of place and an adverb of time, the adverb of place usually goes first:
We must meet there to-morrow. She went there very early. “Your grandfather came down here once...” (Galsworthy.)
g) Adverbs of manner are generally placed after the verb or, if the verb has a direct object, after the direct object:
The Captain nodded gravely. (Dickens.) The rain beat strongly against the panes, the wind blew tempestuously... (Вгоп1ё.) The water glimmered faintly under a star-bright sky... (Cusack.)...he... smoked his pipe incessantly. (Irving.) Paul resumed his task silently. (Lawrence.)
h) Adverbs which modify an adjective, or another adverb, should precede the word they modify:
It was everywhere perfectly still... (Lawrence.) The sky.„ was very gloomy... (Dickens.) Mrs. Steerforth was particularly happy in her son’s society. (Dickens.)...he began to work very deliberately and carefully. (London.)
i) Enough usually follows the word it modifies:
The three days were, as she had foretold, busy enough. (Bront§.) “Oh no, it’s simple enough.” (Jerome.) They all know him well enough. (Marryat.) “...you are poor enough.”- (Dickens.)
The Detached Secondary Parts of the Sentence
1. The detached secondary parts of the sentence[3] (обособленные второстепенные члены предложения) are those parts which acquire a certain independence in the sentence and are consequently much looser connected with the parts of the sentence on which they depend. This independence and looseness of connection with the other members of the sentence is- shown by the fact that the detached parts are separated by a pause (usually, but not always, marked in spelling by a comma) and receive a logical stress of their own.
Both extended and unextended secondary parts of the sentence- may be detached although the use of extended parts in that function is more common.
Compare the following sentences:
In the east the day was breaking, pale and desolate. (Mason.) The morning has broken clear, the day was sunny and cloudless. (Mason.)
In the first sentence the two adjectives joined by the conjunction and fpale and desolate) are pronounced with a logical stress and there is a certain pause before them — they are detached attributes.
In the second sentence the adjective clear is not detached, it forms a double predicate together with the verb had broken (had broken clear.)
The detached secondary parts of the sentence comprise an additional communication and thus bear a predicative character. In their meaning and pronunciation the detached parts of the sentence often approach subordinate clauses.
The candle, wasted at last, went out (= which was wasted at last...) (Brontё.) Having sealed and posted this letter, he went into the dining-room (=when he had sealed and posted this letter...) (Galsworthy.)
2. A detached attribute expressed by an adjective or a participle.
A detached attribute expressed by an adjeсtive or a participle may stand before or after the word which it modifies. A detached attribute may refer not only to a noun but also to a pronoun.
a) When a detached attribute expressed by an adjective or a participle stands before the word which it modifies, it has often additional adverbial meaning (cause, condition, time, concession, comparison.) Such an attribute modifying the subject at the same time refers to the predicate as an adverbial modifier:
Surprised at that unexpected question, I hardly knew what to answer (surprised at that unexpected question — a detached attribute to the subject I and at the same time an adverbial modifier of cause to the predicate knew.) Arrived at the edge, old Jolyon stood, noting another water-lily opened since yesterday. (Galsworthy.) (arrived at the edge — a detached attribute to the subject old Jolyon and at the same time an adverbial modifier of time to the predicate stood).
Impatient for the lignt of spring, I have slept lately with the blind drawn up... (Gissing.) Restless, unhappy, puzzled, he wandered round and about all the afternoon. (Galsworthy.) Thus encouraged, Oliver tapped at the study door. (Dickens.) Slow, silent, the river lapses between its daisied banks... (Gissing.), Weary with watching and anxiety, he at length fell asleep. (Dickens.)
b) When a detached attribute expressed by an adjective or a participle stands after the word which it modifies, it may follow it directly or be placed at some distance from it at the end of the sentence. When the detached attribute immediately follows the word which it modifies, it is often synonymous to a subordinate clause:
We entered a forest, dark and gloomy (= which was dark and gloomy). Again the sun was warm, again the streams, descending from glaciers and snowy caverns, were refreshing to drink at. (Dickens.) A sound of singing came down the water to him, trailing, distant, high and sweet. (Galsworthy.) And — yes — here was the little fountain, broken, and discoloured now. (Galsworthy.) There were two figures, middle- aged and young. (Galsworthy.)
If a detached attribute expressed by an adjective or a participle stands at the end of the sentence, it may either have an.additional adverbial meaning or express a state of the subject attending an action. In the latter case it approaches in its meaning that of a predicative in a double predicate (see “The Double Predicate”, p. 350) the difference consisting only in that the predicative in a double predicate is never detached.
Compare:
Mont Blanc appears — still, snowy, and serene. (Shelley.) (= detached attributes.) The sun rose hot and unclouded. (ВгоМё.) (= predicatives in a double predicate).
He was a bright boy,...healthy and strong... (London.)...then he sat up, offended, glaring at her. (Cronin.)
3. A detached attribute expressed by a noun with a preposition.
A detached attribute expressed by a noun with a preposition is usually extended, but it may also be unextended. In most cases it is placed after the word which it modifies, rarely before it:
It is at the age of eighty that I picture him, without the vestige of a stoop, rather above middle height, of very well proportioned figure... (Galsworthy.) But his greatest joy in life had been his long summer holidays, in Italy, or among the Alps... (Galsworthy.)
4. A detached (loose) apposition.
A detached apposition (see “The Apposition”, p. 377) stands either directly after the word to which it refers or at some distance from it.
The predicative character of a detached apposition is shown by its association with the same articles that are used with the predicative (see “The Article”, p. 58):
The road between the trees was covered in all its length and breadth with fallen leaves — a carpet of pale gold. (Gissing.) Lizzy, a black-eyed child of seven, looked very shy... (Eliot.) In the east mountain peaks — fingers of snow — glittered above the mist. (Galsworthy.)
5. A detached adverbial modifier.
A detached adverbial modifier (of place, time, condition, concession, manner or comparison, attending circumstances) may be expressed by an adverb, a participle, an adjective, a noun or a gerund with a preposition.
A detached adverbial modjfier is usually extended, but sometimes also unextended. It is joined to the word which it modifies either a) asyndetically orb) by means of a conjunction. The conjunction stresses the independent character of the detached adverbial modifier.
A detached adverbial modifier may stand either at the beginning or at the end of the sentence, sometimes in the m i d d 1 e of it:
a) She glanced, sideways, at the old couple. (Mansfield.) He spoke slowly, with cutting deliberation^ (Cronin.) A soft rain had begun to fall, hissing gently on the leaves... (Galsworthy.) Without saying anything to Christine, he began to look for a convenient consulting-room up West. (Cronin.) He sat still a long time, to all appearance watching the little blue butterflies playing round the red and tawny roses. (Galsworthy.) Fleur rose from her chair — swiftly, restlessly, and flung herself down at a writing-table. (Galsworthy.) Slowly, very silently, she went. (Galsworthy.)
b) Though extremely weak, he had no sensation of pain. (London.) In the night, as always, things looked unfamiliar... (Galsworthy.) While skating along at full speed, they heard the cars from Amsterdam coming close behind them. (Dodge.) One bird going to bed later than the others was uttering a half-hearted twitter, as though surprised at the darkness. (Galsworthy.)
A detached adverbial modifier may be expressed by a complex a) the “Nominative Absolute” or b) “The Construction Introduced by with (without):
a)...it (the apple tree) was just in leaf, and all but in flower— its crimson buds just bursting. (Galsworthy.) She was silent, her eyes downcast, upon her knitting (Cronin.) She shrunk slowly away from him, and stood quite still, her eyes wide with horror, her face as white as the kerchief at her neck. (Voynich.) Below me, but far off, is the summer sea, still, silent, its ever changing blue and green dimmed at the long limit with luminous noontide mist. (Gissing.)
b) It was wonderful up here, with the sun burning hot in a sky clear-blue already. (Galsworthy.) And after we had taken off our respective hats, he reseated himself, with his hands on his knees. (Galsworthy.) He was lying very still,...with the sunlight falling across the foot of his bed... (Galsworthy.)
6.The detached specifying parts of the sentence.
A specifying part of the sentence (уточняющий член предложения) makes the meaning of some other part of the sentence more precise, but is not homogeneous with the latter.
The specifying parts of the sentence may be extended or unextended. They may be expressed by the same part of speech as the words to which they refer or by some other part of speech.
The specifying parts of the sentence may be connected with the word to which they refer either a) asyndetica 11 у or b) by" means of conjunctions: that is, namely, etc.:
We walked a very long distance, about six miles — here one noun (distance) is specified by another noun (miles). There, in the wonderful pine forests, we spent a delightful fortnight — here an adverb (there) is specified by a noun (forests). It all happened many years ago, namely in 1932. Now, in the depth of winter, it is hard to traverse those forests. Ten members, that is the majority of the commission, were in favour of the proposal. There, in the little clearing, where they spread the rug, was a singing solitude which belonged only to them and to the birds. (Cronin.) The field was oblong, sixty yards in length, forty in breadth. (O’F1 a her t y.)
SENTENCES WITH HOMOGENEOUS PARTS
1. There are sentences which contain several homogeneous (однородные) parts: two or more subjects to one common predicate, two or more predicates to one common subject, two or more objects of a similar kind to one verb or adjective, etc.
2. The homogeneous parts of a sentence are connected by co-or- dinative conjunctions, or asyndetically (without any conjunction). The copulative conjunction and may always be inserted between the homogeneous parts of a sentence connected asyndetically:
The sky was sombre, velvety, and swarming with stars. (Conrad.) Fields, trees, hedges streamed by. (Mansfield.)
3. The following co-ordinative conjunctions and adverbs connect the homogeneous parts of a sentence:
a)Copulative: and, not only... but also, neither... nor, as
well as:
...and little curly-headed Eppie, the weaver’s child, became an object of interest at several outlying homesteads, as well as in the village. (Eliot.) Mr. Murdstone and I were soon off. (Dickens.) Neither she nor Waldo had anything to say to each other during the whole twenty minutes... (Caldwell.)
b) Disjunctive: or, either... or:
I had no difficulty in recognizing either Minnie or Minnie’s children. (Dickens.) This might have lasted half a minute or a minute... (Dickens.) It was not a bright or splendid summer evening... (Bronte.)
c) Adversative: but, yet, still:
The day was foggy yet warm. He was not reading now, but walking up and down despairingly. (Dickens.)
If a sentence comprises more than two homogeneous elements, they may be linked by the conjunction and; but usually the conjunction is inserted only between the two last members, the other members being connected asyndetically:
We all set off, the doctor, and the child’s father, and our friend, and myself. (Stevenson.) Mr. Pickwick paused, considered, pulled off his gloves and put them in his hat. (Dickens.)
The homogeneous parts of the sentence may be:
1. Co-ordinated subjects:
Hedges, fields, and trees, hill and moorland, presented to the eye their ever-varying shades of deep rich green... (Dickens.) To hear the wind getting up at sea, to know that the fog was creeping over the desolate flat outside, and to look at the fire, and think that there was no house near but this one, and this one a boat, was like enchantment. (Dickens.)
2. Co-ordinated predicatives:
It was growing dark and foggy... (Dickens.) The houses of grey stone are old and beautiful... (Gissing.) “Jane, you look blooming, and smiling, and pretty...” (Вгоп1ё.)
3. Co-ordinated predicates:
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