1. Alliteration – is a phonetic SD, the repetition of initial consonant sounds which are often used in poetry, to emphasize and link words as well as to create musical pleasing sound. (cvc: great/drow)
2. Anadiplosis (catch repetition) — the repetition of the initial, middle of final word or word-group in a sentence or clause at the beginning of the following one. …a, a….
E. g. But Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honourable man. (W. Shakespeare)
3. Anaphora — the repetition of the first word or word-group in several successive sentences, clauses or phrases.
E.g." I love your hills, and 1 love your dales. And I love your flocks a-bleating. " (J. Keats)
4. Anticlimax (bathos) is a lexico-syntactical SD, the reverse of climax, when it suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of the thought which defeats readers’ expectations and ends in complete semantic reversal of the emphasized idea. The sudden reversal usually brings a humorous or ironic effect.
5. Antithesis is a lexico-syntactical SD, a phrase, a sentence or a group of them in which a thing (or a concept) is measured against, or contrasted to, its opposite. Syntactically it’s another case of parallel constructions, it’s a semantic opposition. The main function is to stress the heterogeneity of the described phenomenon. E. g. " Too brief for our passion, too long for our peace. " (G. Byron)
" Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing. " (Goethe)
6. Antonomasia - is a lexical SD in which a proper name is used instead of a common noun or vs.
7. Apokoinu construction -the omission of the pronominal (adverbial) connective creates a blend of the main and the subordinate clauses so that the predicative or the object of the first one is simultaneously used as the subject of the second one: there was a door (that) led into the kitchen. He was the man (who) killed that deer.
8. Aposiopesis (break-in-the-narrative) - A sudden break in speech often occurs in the oral type of speech. It is caused by strong emotion or some reluctance to finish the sentence; is marked graphically by a series of dots or a dash.
9. Archaic forms - terms that are used sometimes to imitate older literature for special effect, and serve as alternative forms of the same terms in recent general use.(e.g. "to deem" = to think);
10. Archaic words - These words are no longer in everyday use or have lost a particular meaning in current usage but are sometimes used to impart an old-fashioned flavour to historical novels;
11. Assonance - the repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words. It is used to reinforce the meanings of words or to set the mood. “Men sell the wedding bells.”
12. Asyndeton - a stylistic device used in literature and poetry, the deliberate omission of conjunctions.
two types A. between words, phrases and a sentence. B. between sentences or clauses.
13. Attachment - a way of connecting two sentences seemingly unconnected sernantically and leaving to the reader to grasp the idea implied. The second part appears to be an afterthought:
14. Bathos -a literary term, when a writer or a poet falls into inconsequential and absurd metaphors, descriptions or ideas in an effort to be increasingly emotional or passionate.
15. Belles-lettres style – thestyle of imaginative literature, has informative and persuasive functions and impresses the reader aesthetically.
16. Cacophony –The use of words with sharp, harsh, hissing and unmelodious in literary composition, as for poetic effect. uses consonants in combinations which requires explosive delivery e.g., p, b, d, g, k, ch-, sh- etc.
17. Capitalization - means using a capital letter (for example, A instead of a). The use of capital letters helps readers read your writing without confusion.
18. Chain repetition- The combination of several catch repetitions. …a, a...b, b…c, c….
19. Chiasmus- a rhetorical inversion of the second of two parallel structures ("Each throat/Was parched, and glazed each eye" (Samuel Taylor Coleridge)). – reversed parallelism.
20. Climax- a syntactical SD, a figure of speech in which words, phrases, or clauses are arranged in order of increasing importance.
21. Colloquial speech - the speech which is observed in everyday non-official communication and is viewed by some linguists as a system of language means so strongly differing from those presented in the formal (literary) communication.
22. Comparison - a rhetorical or literary device in which a writer compares or contrasts two people, places, things, or ideas.
23. Connotation - the associated or secondary additional meaning of a word or expression in addition to its explicit or primary meaning.
24. Convergence a combination or accumulation of stylistic devices promoting the same idea, emotion or motive.
25. Coherence - The logical connections that readers or listeners perceive in a written or oral text.
26. Cohesion - is the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence that holds a text together and gives it meaning.
There are two main types of cohesion: grammatical cohesion which is based on structural content, and lexical cohesion which is based on lexical content and background knowledge.
27. Defeated expectancy - an unpredictable structure of the sentence or a text. Defeated expectancy may come up on any level of the language. It may be an unusual word against the background of otherwise lexically homogeneous text. As a mental phenomenon, defeated expectancy creates the conflict between real and expected situations in the space of the literary text.
28. Detachment - a stylistic device based on separating of a secondary member of the sentence with the help of punctuation (intonation).
"He had been nearly killed, ingloriously, in a jeep accident." (I. Sh.) "I have to beg you for money. Daily." (S. L.)
29. Ellipsis - An incomplete sentence construction, the omission of a word or words necessary for the complete syntactical construction of a sentence but not necessary for understanding it. Don't know. Couldn't come.
30. Epiphora -The repetition of a word or a phrase at the end of two or more successive lines, sentences etc.
- E.g.: We are born to sorrow, pass our time in sorrow, end our days in sorrow.
31. Epithet – an adj.or phrase that is used to express the characteristic of a person or thing, such as Ivan the Terrible. It expresses a characteristic of an object, both existing and imaginary. Its basic features are emotiveness and subjectivity. The emotive meaning is foregrounded.
32. Euphony – the use of words having pleasant and harmonious effects. It gives pleasing and soothing effects to the ears due to repeated vowels and smooth nasal consonants: l, m, n, r, y, f, v, w, s, th, wh.
33. Euphemism - an idiomatic expression which loses its literal meanings and refers to something else in order to hide its unpleasantness.
34. Epithet 35. Euphony
36. Figure of speech (stylistic device, trope) - The result of intended substitution of the existing names by new, occasional, individual ones, prompted by the speaker’s subjective original view and evaluation of things.
37. Foregrounding - is the practice of making something stand out from the surrounding words or images, focusing the reader's attention on certain elements of a message that set the semantic link between elements of the same or different levels.
38. Framing – the repetition of the beginning in the end. A…a. the initial parts of syntactical units are repeated at the end of it.
39. Functional style - is a system of interrelated language means serving a definite aim in communication. It is the coordination of the language means and stylistic devices which shapes the distinctive features of each style. The subsystem of language, having its own peculiar features in vocabulary means, syntactical constructions, and even phonetics.
40. Graphon - the intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation, to supply the individual and social peculiarities of the speaker: origin, social and educational background, his physical or emotional condition.
Ex.: “The b-b-b-ast-ud seen me c-c-coming” (stumbling). “You don’t mean to thay that thith ith your firth time” (lisping).
41. Gap-sentence link - a peculiar type of connection of sentences in which the connection is not immediately seen and it requires an effort to grasp the interrelation between the parts of the utterance.
e.g. She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and they are in Italy.(It means-Those who ought to be the sufferers are enjoying themselves in Italy where well-to-do English people go for holiday.) is generally indicated by and or but. The functions of GSL are the following: 1)it signals the introduction of inner represented speech; 2)it indicates a subjective evaluation of the facts; 3)it displays an unexpected coupling of ideas.
42. Hyperbole - a lexical SD in which emphasis is achieved through deliberate exaggeration, intensifying the quantitative or the qualitative aspect of the mentioned objects: I’ve told you a hundred times!
43. Hyphenation - division of a word especially at the end of a line on a page; the reflection of rhymed or clipped manner in which a word is uttered. The formation of new words by joining free morphemes through hyphens.
44. Inversion – a syntactical SD in which the direct word order is changed either completely so that the predicate precedes the subject (complete inversion), or partially so that the object precedes the subject-predicate pair (partial inversion); aims at making one of the members of the sentence more conspicuous, more important, more emphatic. Stylistic inversion is used to single out some parts of the sentence and sometimes to heighten the emotional tension. e.g. Talent Mr.Micawber has; capital Mr.Micawber has not.’
45. Consonance – the pleasing sounding caused by the repetition of consonant sounds within sentences, phrases, or in poems. Typically this repetition occurs at the end of the words: cv c:great, meat. 46. Inversion
47. Irony – the foregrounding not of the logical, but of the evaluative meaning, the contextual evaluative meaning of a word is directly opposite to its dictionary meaning. The police station was robbed.
48. Italics can be used to reproduce in written form the focal stress that is conveyed prosodically in spoken English.
1) Author’s hint
2) Exotic words
3) Emphasize foreign words
4) Logical and emphatic stress
5) To create an ironic effect
6) To create the implicit information
7) To underline the speech of the character
8) Some key words
9) To create en effect of contrast
49. Litotes - a figure of speech, a lexico-syntactical SD, which employs an understatement by using double negatives or, in other words, positive statement is expressed by negating its opposite expressions. “not too bad” for “very good”
50. Metaphor is a figure of speech, a lexical SD, transference of names based on the associated likeness between 2 objects, is a relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings based on the similiarity of certain properties or features of the 2 corresponding concepts.
51. Metonymy – a lexical SD, created by a different semantic process and is based on nearness of objects or phenomena. 2 objects have common grounds of existence in reality.
52. Simile -is an imaginative comparison of 2 unlike objects belonging to 2 different classes.
53. Onomatopoeia -is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature, by people, by animals, by things.
54. Oxymoron - a lexical SD, a combination of 2 semantically contradictory words or phrases that help to emphasize contradictory qualities simultaneously existing in the described phenomenon as a dialectal unity.
55. Overstatement -the representation of something in terms that go beyond the facts, making to seem more important than it really is.
56. Paradox -aseemingly self-contradictory or absurd statement which in fact establishes a more complex level of meaning by way of association. “I see it feelingly” Functions of paradox:
- to contain some truth on closer examination
- to illustrate an opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas.
- to make a reader think over an idea in innovative way.
57. Parallel construction - Two or more words, phrases, or clauses that are similar in length and grammatical form. Also called parallelism.
58. Paronomasia - the closest similarity in sounding of contextually linking words.
59. Personification – a lexical SD, in which human characteristics are attributed to an abstract quality, animal, or inanimate object.
60. Pun (play on words) - a humorous play of words which are either identical or similar in sound but are very different in meaning.
61. Periphrasis -is a lexico-syntactical SD, which basically consists of using a roundabout form of expression instead of a simpler one, i.e. of using a more or less complicated syntactical structure instead of a word.
62. Polysyndeton – the repeated use of conjunctions.
63. Question-in-the-narrativ e - Changes the real nature of a question and turns it into a stylistic device. A question in the narrative is asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the author.
64. Repetition (lexical, root) - a literary device that repeats the same words or phrases a few times to make an idea clearer.
65. Rhetorical question – the peculiar interrogative construction which semantically remains a statement.
66. Rhyme – is a sound repetition of identical or similar terminal sounds, chaining two or more lines of a poem.
67. Metre - is any form of periodicity in verse. The metre is the phenomenon characterized by its strict regularity, consistency and exchangeability.
68. Eye-rhyme -a visual rhyme or a sight rhyme, in which two words are spelled similarly but pronounced differently. Slaughter-laughter
69. Symbol - is a kind of image. Symbols express very important concepts (a symbol of peace, kindness, love, etc.).
70. Token / tell-tale / talking names
72. Suspense –a deliberate postponement of the completion of the sentence.
73. Synecdoche - is a lexical stylistic device which is based on the relations between a part and the whole.
74. Zeugma - is a figure of speech in which a word, usually a verb or an adjective, applies to more than one noun, blending together grammatically and logically different ideas.“John lost his coat and his temper”
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