Philosophers and Philosophers

Lesson 2

Philosophers and Philosophers

1. Discuss in groups. What is the attitude to philosophers in the modern world? What did your friends/relatives tell you when they found out about your decision to enter Philosophical Department

Pre-reading Task.

Match the names of people and places which will be mentioned in the text with the facts about them:

1. Ambrose

2. Bede [bi:d]

3. Gregory the Great

4. Isidore

5. Jerome

6. Monte Cassino

7. Pliny the Elder

8. Seneca

9. Suetonius

10. Wearmouth

a. is a hill and a town not far from Rome

b. is a place in North East England

c. is known as Venerable

d. was the Bishop of Seville

e. died during one famous natural disaster

f. is considered to be the Patron Saint of translators (and students) and was not afraid of lions

g. is attributed a famous saying translated into English “When in Rome, do as Romans do.”

h. is a Roman stoic philosopher

i. is equally worshipped in Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Church

j. wrote a set of biographies of twelve successive Roman rulers from Julius Caesar to Domitian

Read the text and get ready to answer the following questions:

1. What kind of change in cultural patterns does the author mention?

2. How did the change influence the scholarship (зд. «образование, науку»)?

3. What did Bede devote his life to? What did he write about?

4. How was the term philosophus used at his time and later?

5. What was the attitude to two kinds of philosophers?

Boethius’ Consolation was read and commented upon by Carolingian authors, among them Remigius of Auxerre (c.841–c.908), who sought out what philosophy he could find in ancient texts. The Consolation was translated into several vernaculars in the same period. Nevertheless, it remained true that one could no longer meet a philosopher in the way that Augustine or Boethius could. There were no individuals in Western Europe after Bede’s day (c.673–735) who would call themselves philosophers not Christians, who were choosing a philosophical system as a basis for a way of life in preference to Christianity (though, as we shall see, some thought it might be a guide in addition to Christianity).

This was in part the result of the major changes in cultural patterns brought about by the fall of the Roman Empire. It was no longer the case that those who ruled Europe were educated in rhetoric and philosophy. Many were illiterate, and most were more concerned with the practicalities of war and government than with patronage of learning. It fell largely to the monasteries and the cathedral schools (where clergy who were to serve the cathedral were trained) to sustain what level of scholarship they could. Bede’s mentor, Benedict Biscop (c.628–89), travelled on the continent, spent some time as a monk at Lérins, and brought back from Rome, and Monte Cassino in South Italy, the manuscripts which were to lay the foundation

of the libraries of the monasteries he founded at Wearmouth and Jarrow in the north of England. Bede was given into his care as a child oblate at the age of 7. He spent a productive life making the heritage of books a working part of the tradition of Western monastic life. He wrote on spelling and other grammaticalia; the procedure for calculating the date of Easter; the natural world (using Isidore, Suetonius and Pliny); history and biography designed to show the hand of God in human affairs; and a vast body of Scriptural commentary derived from Augustine, Jerome, Ambrose and Gregory the Great, with some reflections of his own. The character of all

this was practical. Bede sought to meet the needs of his monks, to create a Christian scholarship which was useful and edifying rather than speculative, and in this he was spectacularly successful.

But the success and popularity of his works underlines the nature of the change which had taken place. One would not now meet individuals in the West who were living their lives according to a philosophical and moral system which was, although not Christian, to all intents and purposes a

religion as well as a set of intellectually apprehended opinions about the universe. One could ask whether Boethius may have been as much a philosopher as a Christian in this sense. But it is not a question which could be asked of a contemporary of Bede two hundred years later. From

now on, the term philosophus would be used in one of two ways: to refer to an individual among the ancient philosophers; or to contemporaries who appeared to be adopting their methods as thinkers and going along with their ideas, although remaining themselves Christian scholars. Of the first, it was possible to continue to take Augustine’s view, that they were in the main good and intelligent men who had had the misfortune to be born before Christ, but who had made admirable and even useful progress towards an understanding of the truth. If some of their views had to be excluded from acceptance by Christians, that was only to be expected, and the task of

Christian theological scholarship was to sift the wheat from the chaff. Of the second, it was necessary to take a suspicious view. Here were contemporaries who called themselves Christians, arguing on grounds of reason for opinions which were not always clearly compatible with Christian orthodoxy, and indeed sometimes flagrantly contradicted it. Instances of this pejorative use of philosophi for the moderns are to be found from late in the eleventh century.

When it came to defining philosophy in the Middle Ages, the most practical way to make clear its scope proved to be to use a schema which shows its place in relation to other disciplines. Schemata of the arts and sciences have precedents in late classical and Carolingian encyclopaedists, and in twelfth-century versions. In the thirteenth century, the task was

undertaken again. About 1250, Arnulfus Provincialis, Master of Arts at Paris, listed the definitions of philosophy known to him. Seneca derives the word itself from ‘love’ and ‘wisdom’ and calls philosophy ‘the love of wisdom’; he also describes it as ‘love of right reason’; ‘the study of virtue’; and the art of thinking aright, ‘the study of mental correction’ (corrigenda mentis) (Lafleur, pp. 306–7, and Seneca, Ep. 89). Arnulf gathers another sheaf of definitions from the nature of philosophy a parte rei. Calcidius says that philosophy is ‘the certain knowledge of both things seen and things unseen’. Gundissalinus and Isidore say that it is ‘the certain knowledge of divine and human matters, conjoined with the study of right living’ (Lafleur, p. 308). Isidore also offers the notion that philosophy is the art of arts and the science of sciences. Or philosophy may be said to be the study by which man grows closer to his Creator by the virtue proper to humanity (Lafleur,p. 309). Or philosophy is ‘order benefitting the soul’ (ordo anime conveniens), or ‘man’s self-knowledge’, or ‘the care, study and anxiety which relate to death’, or ‘the inquiry into nature and the knowledge of divine and human matters insofar as that is possible for man’ (Lafleur, p. 310).

Which of the definitions of philosophy given in the last paragraph would you agree with and why?

Pre-translation exercises:

Vocabulary exercises:

1. Which words from the text fit the following definitions:

1. the language spoken in a particular area or by a particular group, especially one that is not the official or written language;

2. not knowing how to read or write;

3. to make sth continue for some time without becoming less;

4. a person vowed and given (by his or her parents in this case) to the monastic life. The phenomenon was common with St. Benedict’s Order.

5. Pertaining to the Bible;

6. the serious study of an academic subject and the knowledge and methods involved, learning;

7. likely to improve your mind or your character;

8. (of ideas, methods or things) able to exist or be used together without causing problems;

9. a word or remark that expresses disapproval or criticism;

10. a number of pieces of paper tied or held together; fig. a large number of sth.

2. A. Look through the text to find the equivalents of the following Russian phrases:

1. выискивать;

2. вместо чего-либо; предпочитая что-либо чему-либо;

3. вызванный;

4. больше не случалось так, что…

5. стать/быть уделом кого-либо;

6. стремиться что-либо сделать;

7. во всех отношениях;

8. называть;

9. соглашаться с чем-либо;

10. которым не повезло…

11. отделить зерна от плевел;

12. относиться с подозрением к кому-либо;

13. Когда речь шла о …

14. в соединении с…

15. становиться кем-либо

B. Make your own sentences to illustrate the usage of the English phrases. Alternatively find them in the British National Corpus (www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk).

3. Collocations

A. Match halves of the collocations from the text:

Admirable	acceptance
apprehended	contradicted
compatible with	Life
Cultural	opinions
excluded from	orthodoxy
Flagrantly	Patterns
Meet	Progress
Productive	scholarship
Spectacularly	Successful
Theological	the needs

B. Translate the following sentences into English using the collocations.

1. Его поведение вызывающе противоречило нормам его общества.

2. Новый роман этого писателя был в высшей степени успешным.

3. Образование должно соответствовать потребностям общества.

4. Эта философская система не принималась христианами.

5. Он многое сделал в жизни.

Word Focus: “To sift the wheat from the chaff” (Bible phrases in English)

Many phrases and sayings we use every day both in Russian and in English originate from the Bible. We are going to learn some of them and to find out why they were said.

A. Search through the grid and find the equivalents of Russian sayings below:

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1. Врачу, исцели себя сам.

2. Иов многострадальный/ терпелив как Иов

3. запретный плод;

4. соль земли;

5. Это мой крест;

6. обоюдоострый меч;

7. Не сторож я брату своему;

8. Потерпеть поражение;

9. Глас вопиющего в пустыне;

10. Что посеешь, то и пожнешь;

11. пойти навстречу, пойти на уступки;

12. Деньги – корень всех зол;

13. смотреть на мир одними глазами;

14. письмена на стене

B. Which of the sayings would you use to:

a. describe something imminent (bound to happen) and evil;

b. comfort a person who complains about low income;

c. describe the best people you know;

d. rebuke sb. for sth bad he or she has done;

e. describe your readiness for a compromise;

f. refer to a person who does not lose faith and hope even when their life is really hard;

g. answer sb. who thinks you do too much for your friend who doesn’t seem to deserve it;

h. describe the situation when you try to convince people who do not want to hear you;

i. refer to your kindred spirit;

j. answer a person who advises you but seems to have the same problem;

k. describe a slightly illegal entertainment;

l. describe something which can harm your opponent but also yourself;

m. refer to a defeat;

n. answer when somebody asks you about your friend’s whereabouts/

C. These are the exact sources of the Quotes and metaphors. Can you match them with the right quote. Read the text in question and prepare to explain the initial meaning of the Biblical words.

Note: In English, the titles of the Bible parts can be different from Russian. The first number after the title means Chapter and the second – the verse. Hence, another idiom – to know chapter and verse about sb/sth (to know everything about a person).

1. Genesis 2:9

2. Matthew 5:41

3. Luke 14:47

4. Proverbs 5:4

5. John 1: 23

6. Genesis 4:9

7. Galatians 6

8. Psalm 72

9. Timothy 6:10

10. Isaiah 52:8

11. Matthew 5:13

12. Daniel 5:5/6

13. Job

14. Luke 4:23

D. Complete the following sentences and even song lyrics with the sayings:

1. They had eaten of … of knowledge and had been cast out of paradise.

2. Look, you’ve got your …, all right, I’ve got mine.

3. The finale of Unforgiven is as much a tragedy for the survivors as for those who ….

4. In good songs, the thinking is: “You reap ….”

5. The backbone of the nation, the ….

6. He had seen the …: after the oil crisis of 1973 there wasn’t going to be enough money to keep all the universities.

7. He said he could not serve on that sub-committee “when I do not … with them on any subject.

8. Mr. Patten told legislators: “We wished to … and give the Chinese side every opportunity to respond.”

9. Money is …, dictates the puritanical thought of the Old Age.

10. “Alone in my sorrow I heard a voice cry,

…, a voice from the sky

(Cliff Richard)

Grammar Exercises

1. Let us review Passive Voice.

General Formula – be + V3

Simple Infinitive – (to) be + V3

Perfect Infinitive – (to) have + been + V3

Continuous Infinitive – (to) be + being + V3

	Simple	Continuous	Perfect
Present	am/is/are + V3	am/is/are being + V3	Have/has been + V3
Past	Was/were + V3	Was/were being + V3	Had been + V3
Future	Will be +V3	-------------------------	Will have been + V3

One column and one square in the second column are missing. Why?

Look through the text, find all forms of Passive Voice and translate them into Russian. What are the most suitable ways of translation?

2. Modal Verbs + Perfect Infinitive (have + V3)

might have done (<50% probability) – возможно, сделал

may have done (50% probability in the past) – возможно, сделал

could have done (50% probability or missed opportunity in the past) – возможно сделал или мог сделать, но не сделал

must have done (95% probability in the past) – вероятно, сделал

couldn’t have done (-99 % of probability in the past) – никак не мог сделать

should have done (unfulfilled oibligation in the past) – следовало сделать, но не сделал

should not have done (a mistake) – не следовало делать, но сделал

Translate the following Russian sentences using Modals with Perfect Infinitives:

1. Ему не следовало спорить с ней. Теперь он жалеет об этом.

2. Я видела Тома вчера. Это не мог быть он. Он сейчас в Австралии.

3. Он, вероятно, уже вернулся домой. Свет в его квартире горит.

4. Мне нужно было готовиться к контрольной работе, но друзья пригласили меня в кино.

5. Этот писатель, возможно, был популярен в свое время, но теперь о рнем никто не знает.

Find a similar construction in the text and translate the sentence into Russian.

3. Prove/be proved to be

The word is tricky – in Complex Subject constructions, when it is used in Active Voice, it is translated as оказаться and when it is used in Passive, it is translated as (было) доказано. The best guideline, in any case< is your common sense.

Translate the following sentences into Russian:

1. When it came to defining philosophy in the Middle Ages, the most practical way to make clear its scope proved to be to use a schema which shows its place in relation to other disciplines.

2. Initial interaction is often crucial if a relationship is to continue and even more so for intercultural relationships, for the initial social penetration proves more difficult in these relationships.

3. Although a number of studies attempted to test the proposition, most of them failed to prove anything significant.

4. Given (учитывая) the articulateness of the theory, it should prove to be a heuristic source for future research.

5. The fact that a word in a 14^th century writing is registered today only in a dictionary of modern Bulgarian dialects does not prove that the word does not exist in some unrecorded Serbo-Croatian dialect of today, nor does it prove that this word has always existed in Bulgarian or that it never existed elsewhere.

Now we are ready to translate the text. Do your translation at home in writing. Then in class work in groups of 3 or 4 and discuss your translations. Then get together with the representatives of other groups and discuss your versions. Finally present your version to the whole class.

Writing 1 Summarizing

Summarizing will be necessary in your academic life both while reporting somebody else’s ideas in the body of your paper and in presenting your own thoughts in abstracts for conferences and journals. As for writing abstracts, we are going to learn how to do it later. Let us now concentrate on summarizing. There are certain rules:

1. Your summary should be no more than ¼ or 1/5 of the text.

2. All parts (and ideas) of the author should be presented equally. You can not concentrate on one idea and ignore all others.

3. Direct quotation should be limited – only one or two most interesting sentences – don’t forget to include quote: [Johnson, 1999: 23], which means “taken from a book or article by Johnson published in 1999,from page 23. Without it the exact quotation will be plagiarism.

4. The rest should be paraphrased (and shortened). You will have to single out only main points, without examples, details, colourful descriptions, etc. and put them into your own words.

Now read two more paragraphs which were not included in the main text and try to summarize them:

The concepts of theology and philosophy, and of the peripheral sciences, the liberal arts, the mechanical arts, even the magical arts, can all be seen as hierarchically ordered to the supreme purpose of knowing God. It was generally held in the thirteenth century that the mechanical arts operate at such a humble level that they are not worth the study of those who are capable of learning better things, and indeed they may distract the soul from aspiring higher. The magical arts and astrology have a built-in tendency to error, because they do not have their sights fixed on God alone (although

they are effective enough in the mediaeval view). The liberal arts ought to be theology’s true handmaids, teaching skills which enable the soul to do theology (theologizare) better. But philosophy herself is too close to theology for comfort. She can be seen as embracing all these other arts and sciences, and also some of the area proper to theology itself.

A first conclusion to be drawn from all this is that the thirteenth-century masters got no further than their predecessors in ‘placing’ philosophy incontrovertibly among the arts and sciences. Nor did they succeed in defining the exact scope of the discipline in a manner with which everyone could agree. Philosophy was not like grammar or logic, with familiar elementary or more advanced textbooks, and an established place in the syllabus. Nevertheless, in practice, it was the study of the artes which proved best able to accommodate the influx of new textbooks on philosophical subjects when the rest of Aristotle arrived in the West from the end of the twelfth century. That led, as we shall see, to inter-Faculty rivalry in the universities. But before we come to that story we must look at the development in the Middle Ages of a corresponding ‘idea of theology’. (307 words)

Your summary should contain 60 to 75 words.

Writing 2 Topic Sentences and paragraphs:

1. Read the following explanation of what a topic sentence is and how it sould be developed written by Dorothy Turner / www.writingcentre.ottawa.ca/hypergrammar/ (accessed 28.07.2011):

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements. Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be the unifying force in the paragraph. Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when a topic sentence makes a claim, the paragraph which follows must expand, describe or prove it in some way. Topic sentences make a point and give reasons and examples to support it.

Analyze the structure of the paragraph. What is its topic sentence? What are the functions of other sentences?

2. Read a short extract from a rather long poular article on philosophy published on the site www.unexplainable.net/artman/publish/article_1182.st (accessed on 28.07.2011)

PHILOSOPHY is a study that seeks to understand the mysteries of existence and reality. It tries to discover the nature of truth and knowledge and to find what is of basic value and importance in life. It also examines the relationships between humanity and nature and between the individual and society. Philosophy arises out of wonder, curiosity, and the desire to know and understand. Philosophy is thus a form of inquiry--a process of analysis, criticism, interpretation, and speculation.

The term philosophy cannot be defined precisely because the subject is so complex and so controversial. Different philosophers have different views of the nature, methods, and range of philosophy. The term philosophy itself comes from the Greek philosophia, which means love of wisdom. In that sense, wisdom is the active use of intelligence, not something passive that a person simply possesses.

The first known Western philosophers lived in the ancient Greek world during the early 500's B.C. These early philosophers tried to discover the basic makeup of things and the nature of the world and of reality. For answers to questions about such subjects, people had largely relied on magic, superstition, religion, tradition, or authority. But the Greek philosophers considered those sources of knowledge unreliable. Instead, they sought answers by thinking and by studying nature.

What are the topic sentences of the paragraphs? What can you say about their position in the paragraph?

By the way, this is not the only possible position. The topic sentence sometimes may go in the end or even in the middle. You should know it as a reader. But as a writer, especially at international exams, might prefer the initial position of TS.

3. Read some more paragraphs from the same article. Their topic sentences have been cut out and mixed up. Put them in their right places again:

(1) …Almost everyone has been puzzled from time to time by such essentially philosophic questions as "What does life mean?" "Did I have any existence before I was born?" and "Is there life after death?" Most people also have some kind of philosophy in the sense of a personal outlook on life. Even a person who claims that considering philosophic questions is a waste of time is expressing what is important, worthwhile, or valuable. A rejection of all philosophy is in itself philosophy.

(2) …. A person can study philosophers of the past to discover why they thought as they did and what value their thoughts may have in one's own life. There are people who simply enjoy reading the great philosophers, especially those who were also great writers.

(3) …Philosophy has had enormous influence on our everyday lives. The very language we speak uses classifications derived from philosophy. For example, the classifications of noun and verb involve the philosophic idea that there is a difference between things and actions. If we ask what the difference is, we are starting a philosophic inquiry.

(4) …. Such changes have occurred because the people involved held certain beliefs about what is important, true, real, and significant and about how life should be ordered.

(5) …. Democratic societies stress that people learn to think and make choices for themselves. Nondemocratic societies discourage such activities and want their citizens to surrender their own interests to those of the state. The values and skills taught by the educational system of a society thus reflect the society's philosophic ideas of what is important.

(a) By studying philosophy, people can clarify what they believe, and they can be stimulated to think about ultimate questions.

(b) Every institution of society is based on philosophic ideas, whether that institution is the law, government, religion, the family, marriage, industry, business, or education.

(c) Philosophic differences have led to the overthrow of governments, drastic changes in laws, and the transformation of entire economic systems.

(d) Philosophic thought is an inescapable part of human existence Philosophic thought is an inescapable part of human existence

(e) Systems of education follow a society's philosophic ideas about what children should be taught and for what purposes.

4. Rearrange the following sentences to form a meaningful paragraph:

A.

(1) For example, we know from observation how many keys are on a typewriter and from experience which key will print what letter.

(2) For example, we know that there are 60 seconds in a minute by learning the meanings of the terms.

(3) From these facts, we can deduce that there are 3,600 seconds in an hour, and we arrive at this conclusion by the operation of thought alone.

(4) In the same way, we know that there are 60 minutes in an hour.

(5) Philosophers often distinguish between two kinds of knowledge, a priori and empirical.

(6) We acquire empirical knowledge from observation and experience.

(7) We arrive at a priori knowledge by thinking, without independent appeal to experience.

B.

(1)An argument consists of a set of statements called premises together with a statement called the conclusion, which is supposed to be supported by or derived from the premises.

(2) A good argument provides support for its conclusion, and a bad argument does not.

(3) An instance of reasoning is called an argument or an inference.

(4) It explores how we distinguish between good (or sound) reasoning and bad (or unsound) reasoning.

(5) Logic is the study of the principles and methods of reasoning.

(6) Two basic types of reasoning are called deductive and inductive.

C.

(1) Every society has some form of religion.

(2) Historically, philosophy originated in religious questions.

(3) Most people acquire their religion from their society as they acquire their language.

(4) Philosophy inquires into the essence of things, and inquiry into the essence of religion is a philosophic inquiry.

(5) These questions concerned the nature and purpose of life and death and the relationship of humanity to superhuman powers or a divine creator.

D.

(1) However, the importance of the pre-Socratics lies not in the truth of their answers but in the fact that they examined the questions in the first place.

(2) Instead, they sought a natural explanation for natural phenomena.

(3) The philosophers saw the universe as a set of connected and unified phenomena for which thought could find an explanation.

(4) They gave many different and conflicting answers to basic philosophic questions.

(5) They had no philosophic tradition to work from, but their ideas provided a tradition for all later philosophers

(6) Unlike most other people of their time, the pre-Socratic philosophers did not believe that gods or supernatural forces caused natural events.

E.

(1) Aristotle's basic method of inquiry consisted of starting from what we know or think we know and then asking how, what, and why.

(2) Aristotle taught that everyone aims at some good.

(3) By virtuous activity, he meant behaving according to a mean between extremes.

(4) Christian theologians later adopted this idea as a basic argument for the existence of God.

(5) For example, courage is the mean between the extremes of cowardice and foolhardiness.

(6) He said that happiness does not lie in pleasure but in virtuous activity.

(7) In his metaphysics, he developed the idea of a first cause, which was not itself caused by anything, as the ultimate explanation of existence.

(8) The highest happiness of all, Aristotle believed, was the contemplative use of the mind.

5. Write the topic sentences for the following paragraphs:

1. ______________________________________________________ If you are a resident of Taipei and travel overseas, one of the first things you will notice is that during the evening hours, cities seem to close their doors before the night has even begun. Supermarkets, department stores, and drugstores close before 9:00 p.m. Movies stop playing and buses and subways stop running before midnight. The sidewalks are nearly empty, and few cars venture forth on the streets. In Taipei, however, one can play 24 hours every day. Movies run until the early hours of the morning, KTVs and MTVs operate 24 hours, and crowded discos and pubs play loud music to dancers and drinkers until dawn. In Taipei, the nights are as busy as the days.

2. ____________________________________________________ We all know about looking up words in dictionaries, and perhaps finding cities in an atlas or a description of some fact in an encyclopedia, but few of us realize that these books can also be a source of pleasure. Dictionaries, for example, not only contain the meaning and pronunciation of words. They can also tell us where the words come from or how to distinguish similar words. Atlases, too, not only show maps of countries; they contain interesting information about race, language, history, and biology. Encyclopedias can be entertaining: just choose one, open it up, and start learning about something you never knew before! We too often use reference books in a hurry; we should realize that they can be as much fun as they are useful.

3. _____________________________________________________ In this modern world with faster means of transportation available to more people, the train nevertheless continues to be popular. In most countries, train tickets are often sold out. Why do so many people want to take the train? Perhaps it is because they are reasonably priced--cheaper than an airplane--and have large windows from which we can comfortably view the passing world. Maybe trains are popular because they never get stuck in traffic jams, as cars and buses often do. Another reason may be that trains are older and sometimes seem a little romantic. For whatever reason, do not be surprised to see people preferring trains to other modes of transportation far into the future.

4. _______________________________________________________ Actually, they are easy to distinguish. Snack food refers to any food which is eaten between the three primary meals of breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Snack food can be any kind of food, such as leftovers, fruit, candy, and a sandwich. Junk food refers to any food which is not nutritious and may actually be bad for us, such as candy, deep-fried meat, and doughnuts. Finally, the term fast food is used for foods cooked at fast-food restaurants. Some fast food is also junk food, as it contains too much salt and oil. In short, when you want some snack food, don’t eat junk food or fast food!

5. _______________________________________________________ Some people feel that having a dress code reduces students’ creativity. They say that by wearing the same clothes every day, students will never learn to dress themselves for work or social occasions. They also point out that student uniforms alone can not make all students look equal because students can wear expensive watches or hair styles instead. On the other hand, other people think that dress codes allow for easy identification of students and will reduce student crimes. These people also say that uniforms save both time and money when dressing in the morning. As we can see, there are good reasons to support each side’s argument. How do you feel about school uniforms?

Designed by Bruce Bugnell (www.eslflow.com accessed 28.07.2011)

6. A. The following are topic sentences for the topic Standardized Tests in Schools. The position of the author is against standardized testing (www.ccs.k12.in.us/teachers/downloads/cms_block_file accessed 28.07.2011

The initial exercise was modified to suit Russian situation better. Write short paragraphs (5-8 sentences) for each topic sentence

1. Standardized tests can be biased or unfair to students.

2. The tests are often written by people with little or no teaching experience.

3. Teachers are forced to teach to the test, thus eliminating creativity and engaging lesson plans from the classroom.

4. Learning material for tests means other, more educational material receives less emphasis.

5. Less than ideal standardized tests scores often prevent highly intelligent, motivated students from acceptance into their top choice colleges.

6. (Russian) The tests, which were supposed to eliminate corruption in education, resulted in even more corruption.

7. (Russian) As most universities now do not have a chance to get to know the applicants in person and are to judge by impersonal and not necessarily honest State Exam results, the overall level of first-year students deteriorates every year.

B. Work in groups of 3 or 4. Try to find the arguments for standardized tests and write appropriate topic sentences. Then distribute the topic sentences and write paragraphs devel.oping them.ayl

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