Задания для самостоятельной работы по курсу сравнительная типология англ и рус

Задания для самостоятельной работы по курсу сравнительная типология англ и рус

Сравнительная типология

Comparative typology of Russian and English

Lecture 1. Principles of language classification

1/ Languages in the world

2/ Genealogical classification

3/ Typological (morphological) classification

4/ Areal classification

5/ Functional classification

There are about 5000 languages on the planet. The number is not precise, 'cos in many cases it's problematic to decide whether it's a separate language or just a dialect. Besides, there are archaic or dead languages that don't function anymore and they are not always included in this number.

Languages also differ as for the number of speakers. They vary from 1,5 bln speakers (Chinese) to only several hundreds (Asia and Caucasus).

10 most wide-spread languages are spoken by 2/3 of the population. (3,8 bln, other 4990 - by other 1,9 bln):

Chinese is the most wide-spread language

English

Hindi+Urdu

Spanish

Russian

Indonesian

Arabic

Bengali

Portuguese

Japanese

Our knowledge of different languages and their development is not the same. Some languages (Greek, Sanskrit) are known for 3000 years already. Most languages appeared in IV – VII centuries.

The 3^rd group of languages are called young ones, 'cos they appeared in the Medieval period (14-15^th century) (Lettish, Albanian).

Some languages became known only in the 19^th century thanks to archeological researches (Egyptian).

Linguists try to bring a systematic description of all languages. Different classifications were introduces that described languages in all perspectives. Up to now genealogical and typological classifications are most elaborate. Areal and functional classifications – in the XX century.

Genealogical classification

This classification deals with identification of genetic similarities in languages. It was created by historical comparative linguistics in the 19^th century. The most important names – Frenz Bopp, Jacob Grimm, Rasmus Rask, Alsexandr Vostokov.

The essence of this method consists in comparison of genetically related forms. It helps to identify the common ancestor form. This form later gave birth to related words in new languages.

ед.число

1 — bhárami (Sanskrit), baira (Gothic), phero (Greek), fero (Latin), берў (Old Russian)

Russian – вода, Belarus – вода, Polish – woda, Czech – voda

море - ---- - morze – more

сто - ---- - sto – sto

Genetic relations between languages are not always determined by geographical position, e.g. most languages that function in Eurasia belong to IE. But there are several territories on these continents where languages of other families are spread.

Within one and the same family different branches can be singled out. But it is so only for wide families. (IE family is the champion – it includes most languages – 40% of all languages. It includes 12 branches)

Slavic branch is decided into Southern, Eastern(Russian, Belorussian, Ukrainian) and Western (Polish) groups.

Japanese is a family by itself.

Typological classification

This classification divides languages irrespective of their origin, 'cos the principle of division is morphemic structure of the word. A bit later linguists also studied similarities in phonology and syntax.

Fridrich Schlegel (German linguist) compared 4 languages (Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and Turkish) and as a result he divided languages into flective and non-flective. Later the second type was called affixal. Now they are also called agglutinative (Turkish). By that time some other languages (Chinese) were already well-studied. But Chinese was different from both types. Such languages didn't use affixes and inflections. They mostly used one-morphemic words that are not changeable. So they were called isolating (amorphous or root languages).

Schlegel also divided flective languages into analytical and synthetic type. This classification was completed by Humboldt who included the 4^th type which was called incorporating or polysynthetic (incorporating) type. He proved the fact that there are no pure languages because most of them combine features of different language types. So dominant features are taken into consideration when languages are classified.

Flective languages have the following distinctive features:

1. Wide variability of forms which is achieved by regular use of flextions.

2. In most cases flection is polysemantic

3. affixes are used in different positions to the root (prefixes, infixes, confixes or circumfixes, etc.)

4. the word in such languages is an autonomous unit that has formal markers of relations with other words in the sentence. It is realized in agreement and government

5. all IE languages belong to flective type.

6. These languages are divided into synthetic and analytical types. Analytical languages prefer functional words to the use of inflections. They also use syntactical and phonetic means (English, French, Bulgarian). Synthetic languages express lexical and grammatical meanings in one unit. Words have reach paradigms. They use prefixes and suffixes more often than analytical. They use several types of declation and спряжение.

1. Agglutinating languages differ from synthetic ones by the nature of affixes. They use monofunctional affixes which express only 1 grammatical meaning.

Баш (голова) — башлар (головы) pl

баштын — головы gen

башлартын — голов gen, pl

2. The boundaries between morphemes are always distinct and fusion is never used.

3. Historical changes of the morphemic structures do not take place. (simplification, reintegration, complication)

4. only one type of declination and conjugation (finny-ugric, Finnish, Hungarian)

Amorphous type (isolating – 'cos words don't change their form and nothing is added to them) (Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean)

1. the word as a rule is equal to the root and that's why they are also called root languages.

2. Grammatical meanings are expressed by functional words, word-order, musical stress and intonation:
“ча» – чай, «во» – я, «бу» – не, «хэ» – пить
ча во бу хэ — я не пью чай

Incorporating languages

1. are characterized by coincidence of the word and sentence structure. Each word is incorporated in the sentence which looks like one indivisible unit.

2. The affirmative sentence opens with the subject finishes with the predicate and all secondary parts are included in between.
Yakut:

ты — я, ата – жир, каа — олень, нмы — убивать, ркын — делать
тыатакаанмыркын — я жирных оленей убиваю

Actually, most languages can't represent this or that pure type. Usually it's possible to find features of different language types in one language. The dominant features are taken into consideration.

Areal classification

This classification shows territorial distribution of languages. The basic notions here are language areal, dialect areal, language union.

A language areal is a territory on which some language is used. The borders between the areas are very important because they show what languages are in close contacts. Several areas constitute a language union.

The Balkan Language Union:

- Bulgarian

- Macedonian

- Romanian

- Moldavian

- Albanian

- New Greek

Languages of the same union can be of different types and genetic similarity s not obligatory. The Affinity (генетическое родство) here can be observed very seldom and similarities between languages are required only due to long context. Language distribution greatly depends on political, economical and historical factors.

One of the basic factors is migration of population. e.g. there are more than 300 000 000 speakers of Spanish in the world and only 10% of them live in Spain. Portuguese (Brazil).

History also gives examples of language contence. Roman occupied the territory of modern Spain and France they imposed their own language – Latin. Native languages were suppressed, but nor eliminated completely. Nowadays Spanish and French include 2 layers of vocabulary – the native layer which is called “substratum” and elements of the imposed language - “superstratum”.

Modern language situations also show language coinfluence. Most neighboring languages penetrate into one another and very often political boundaries coincide with territories of bi-linguism.

Portuguese – adstratum – French (peaceful borrowings)

Functional classification

It's a new approach to language division and up to now only some principles of it have been defined.

1. The total number of speakers of language.

2. Correlation of alive (living) and archaic (dead) ones.

3. Distribution of some language outside its original territory.

4. Correlation of written and non-written languages.

5. Correlation of genuine (естественные) and man-planned (man-designed) languages.

As for the nature of speaking community, languages are divided into three groups:

1. tribal languages

2. ethnic languages

3. national languages

as for the distributional languages outside the original territory, languages are divided into 4 groups:

1. local (Chinese for speaking diaspora in NY)

2. regional (on wide territories – the Tibetan language in China)

3. international (Russian for former republics)

4. world languages (The Club of World Languages – English, French, Spanish, Chinese, Russian, Arabic)

Functional study of languages also focuses on investigation of language situations. A language situation is a peculiar combination of some literary language and it's social and geographical varieties. For each language this situation is specific and that's why situations are divided into monolingual, bilingual (prevail in the world) and polylingual. Situations are also divided into balanced and unbalanced. In the first case the languages in use are equal. In most cases situations are unbalanced when some language (languages) are dominant and others are restricted in official use (Russian in former republics). In India – Hindi and English are both official languages. But actually the situation is unbalanced. There are a lot of states where various ethnic languages are in function and historically they were in confrontation where varieties of Hindi were used. This population resists the use of Hindi and that's why they prefer English as a more neutral language.

Lecture 2.

typological approach to language analysis

1/ basic notions of typology:

a) isomorphism and allomorphism

b) the notion of the model language

c) language universals

2/ methods of typological analysis

a) glottochronology

b) typological indexation

c) a descriptive comparative method

7/11/2011

Linguistic typology as a separate discipline appeared early in the 70s of the XX century. It studies language types, similarities and differences in their structure. This discipline was developed on the basis of historical comparative linguistics. Now typology deals with all types of languages irrespective of their affinity. If only two languages are compared it is called comparative typology. Comparative typology gives a systemic description of juxtaposition of a foreign language and one's native language. It's especially important for teaching purposes. It helps to foresee and overcome difficulties in this process and to overcome negative influence of one's native language.

Isomorphism and allomorphism

the term isomorphism was introduced by a Polish linguist Kurilovich who borrowed it from mathematics. It means similarity, likeness or even identity of structure.

In typology we speak about isomorphism of some language units or even systems if they have likeness in arrangement.

Isomorphism:

English – will/shall read

Russian – БУДУ читать

Allomorphism:

Eng – will/shall read

Rus – прочитаю

The model language

this notion was introduced in order to achieve more objective typological description. In order to define iso- and allomorphic features at least two languages must be compared. One of these languages is in the focus of attention, it is under analysis. The second language becomes a kind of instrument in this process. Usually one's native language is used for this purpose. But native languages are different in structure. Such comparison gives not objective results.

For the purpose of comparison the notion of the model language was introduces. It is not a real, existing language. It exists as a scheme which includes a list of average characteristics of all languages known up to now. (see typological indexation) среднеарифметическая всех языков по всем показателям

A language universal

a language universal is some statement that reflects features of all languages or of most of them. And the aim of universals is to reveal tendencies in language development.

All languages have vowels and consonants but the correlation of them is different in all languages. (all languages use vowels and consonants – absolute universal)

75% of languages use 3 tenses – statistic universal.

Statistic universals characterize not all languages but groups of them, e.g. most European languages have case paradigms of nouns (from 2 up to 8 case forms) but in the same time there are some exceptions – Bulgarian, French, Spanish do not have case.

Besides language universals are divided into extralinguistic and linguistic. The first type is used not only in linguistics because such universals describe relations outside language system. They can be used in logic or in semiotics.

e.g. a minimal utterance is expressed in the sentence (notion utterance – beyond language)

linguistic universals describe the language structure and correspondingly they are divided according to language levels – phonological, lexical, grammatical.

They can also be synchronic and diachronic. Synchronic universals show language at one definite period of its development. Diachronic universals show development of a language. E.g. [k] > [ʧ]

Eng: OE ceosan > ME chesan > NE choose

Latin: centrum > cento (Italian)

Rus: пеку – печешь, крепкий – крепче

2. Methods of typological analysis

2a. This method of analysis (glottochronology) introduced by historical-comparative linguistics helps to define the degree of affinity of different languages. It was also used to identify the time of divergence of different languages and dialects. M. Swadesh, an American linguist, used this method to distinguish between language and its dialects. Any two speech variations can be called different languages if they started to diverge at least 5 centuries ago or earlier. If it happened later, such variations can’t be called languages; they are just dialects. They still preserve many similarities but later they can develop into different languages. Swadesh proved that the age of any language family is at least 3 thousand years. At that time common Indo-European language split into variations that gave birth to language families. This method was developed by a Russian linguist Yahontov. He introduced a scale of affinity between languages and he based it on possibility of communication. This scale also gives approximate time of divergence of languages.

Glottochronology also describes the degree of affinity of different languages statistically using word-stock of languages. Swadesh stated that in vocabulary of any language there exists a basic most ancient native layer. This layer includes only native words which denote most essential notions used in everyday communication. The more coincidences in form of such words are singled out, the greater degree of affinity of these two languages is. In the same way different languages can be compared and the degree of affinity is always connected with the time of divergence.

2b. TI is a specialized typological method created by Joseph Greenberg, an American linguist, and it is also called quantitative method because he used mathematical proportions/ratios. He analysed texts each consisting of 100 words and the texts were in different languages though the meaning the meaning was the same. He singled out the following criteria:

- the index of syntheticism (W = 100 words; M – number of morphemes) Eng: 1,62 – 1,68; Rus: 2,33 – 2,45

- the index of agglutination (A = cases of agglutination; J = juncture)

14/11/11

- Word composition index (R = root; W = words)

- Index of Suffixion (S = suffixes; W = words)

High indexes of??? and?? are more typical of flective, especially synthetic languages. Other indexes not only show differences between language types, but also measure the degree of synthetic or analytical tendencies within the languages.

TYPOLOGY OF PHONOLOGICAL

1. typological constants [indexes] in phonology

2. typological constants of vowels

3. typological constants of consonants

4. typology of supersegmental means in phonology: stress and intonation

5. typology of syllables [syllable division]

the notion “typological constant” denotes different criteria of description and classification. Phonological systems in different languages differ in 2 aspects:

1. quantitatively

2. qualitatively

Some languages have a balanced proportion of vowels and consonants and they are called vocalic languages. If consonants prevail greatly, the languages are called consonantic.

Some languages use interdental consonants, like English, New Greek, Danish.

Usage of glottal phonemes – they are very rare in IE sounds.

Typological comparison in phonology deals with several constants:

1. the number of phonemes in the language and their nomenclature.

2. The structure of phonological oppositions within this language.

3. The number of phonological correlations within this language.

4. Neutralization of phonological oppositions. In different languages neutralization takes place in different positions and this is criteria for comparison. Russian and German – consonants are neutralized at the end of the word.

5. It is distribution of phonemes and their frequency of occurrence. e.g. in English phonemes [s] ans [z] and [t] and [d] are used most often because they are very commonly used within grammatical morphemes. Some phonemes are extremely rare: [ae] in Russian.

6. Functions of the phonemes within the word (in Semitic languages most consonants expressed meaning....... In Turkish languages the situation is quite obvious – vowels are free from grammatical meaning. Göl – озеро, gül – цветок. Русский: дог, бог, рог.

These 6 criteria are constant taken for comparison of any 2 languages.

Vowels

Subsistence of vowels in English consists of 20 phonemes, 12 monophthongs and 8 diphtongs, whereas in Russian there are only 26 phonemes, all of them are monophthongs. According to the place of articulation vowels are classified:

English:

[I:] [e] [ae]	[i]	[ɜ] [ɜ:]	[Ͻ] [Ͻ:] [u:]
Fully front	Front retracted	central	Fully back

The high of the tongue. sm. Arakin.

In English there are diphthongs and in Russian there no. in Russian – combination of two phonemes. Distribution of vowels also differs. In English in the open syllable mostly long vowels and diphthongs are used, in unstressed position – the neutral vowel. It can be expressed in writing in many ways.

In Russian distribution of vowels is not clearly determined. //// only after hard consonants.

Typological constants of consonants.

Comparison in consonants in Russian and English shows the following correlation: in English – 24 phonemes, in Russian – 35. both Russian and English have plosives, fricative, sonorants and affricates.

In English there are 6 articulatory zones – labial, interdental, alveolar, mediolingual, backlingual, glottal. In Russian there are no interdental and glottal zones. And instead of the alveolar dental zone is used.

As for neutralization in Russian there are 3 basic types of it:

1. in the final position

2. intermorphemic type

3. ///is not typical of English and it can result in phonological //////

Consonant alternation is typical of both languages and it is determined by historical factors. In Russian most frequent alternation patterns are as follows://// In English the most frequent patterns are: [d]/[g] – divide/division, [t]/[sh] – imitate – imitation.

In English there are cases of alternation within variants of the single word – issue.

In English glottal? Can't occur in the initial position and the rest positions are quite possible. In Russian voiced consonants can't occur in the final position and soft consonants can't be used before ///

5/12/11

Word-composition:

1. Number of stems (2-3)

2. The way of linking:
– Adjoinment “snowball”

– linking morphemes -o-, -e- in Rus, -s- in English

– linking functional words “son-in-low”, “Jack-of-all-trades”

3. The type of link:
– attributive “redbreast”, “blackbird”

– predicative “sunrise”,
– objective “turnscrew” – that turns the screw

4. position of the main element (pre/post- position)

TYPOLOGY OF MEANING

a) Paradigmatic aspect

if we combine meaning of equivalent words in 2 languages we can find 4 types of relations:

A=B	A<B	A>B	A=0
These relations are called “full” or “absolute” equivalents and the scope of meaning coincides absolutely	The word in the target language is narrower	The word in the target (English) language is wider	We don't have equivalents. These relations are called Linguistic lacunas. Such words can be translated into other languages but they are rendered not by a word by an explanatory translation or periphrasis.
Chess = шахматы telegram = телеграмма	Лестница = a ladder, stairs, staircase, fire-escape	Put =постелить, повесить, положить, поставить	сутки, кипяток, fortnight, hosiery

Relations are divided into inclusion and crossing.

Crossing is connected with the existence of some specific meaning in each of the words. (голос (voice, vote) and voice (speaking, залог)).

Открывать – open, find out, discover

Party – вечеринка, политическая партия.

There are 2 reasons for the existence of such lacunas:

1. the absence of the denoted phenomena (колхоз, eleven plus examination)

2. purely linguistic factors because each language reflects reality in its own way.

Sometimes words seem to have equivalents but they have quite a different meaning.

Languages differ in semantic structures of the words. Some languages prefer more general meaning (English) and some prefer more concrete meanings (Russian).

The idea of motion.

b) Syntagmatic aspect

Very often when the word is polysemantic its real meaning becomes clear only in the context. According to Amosova there are 3 types of contexts:

1. Purely lexical when the meaning is actualized due to its combination with the neighboring word.

2. Syntactical context when the meaning of the word depends on the syntactic construction it is used in. syntactical context also includes cases of transitive use of verbs (In English only)

3. Lexico-syntactical context when both lexical combustibility and syntactical structures are important. E.g. “the sun sets”, “he is setting potatoes”, “a peasant woman is setting her hens”.

Conclusion: all these contexts should be taken into consideration because they make the system of lexical units and their semantic potential more expressive.

MORPHOLOGY.

TYPOLOGY OF THE VERB IN RUSSIAN AND ENGLISH

verb is a universally used part of speech but its morphological features differ in different languages. In Russian the verb has gender, but in English it is not used and at the same time in English perfect forms make up the category of time-correlation. Besides, differences exist in the system of verbals. In Russian there are 2 of them – participle and adverbial participle. In English both of them are expressed by the participle that has 2 variants (participle I and II). In English gerund is used which corresponds to Russian verbal noun. The rest verbal categories coincide – aspect, tense, voice, mood, person.

Aspect.

In English and Russian there are 2 aspect forms but the grammatical meaning is specific in each language. In Russian there exists an opposition of perfective and imperfective aspects where the meaning is connected with logical completeness of an action. In English the difference between continuous and indefinite aspects shows the manner of action – a mere fact or a process. In Russian the perfective aspect is expressed derivatively with prefixes and affixes. Besides stress can denote aspect relations. Lexical means are also important. In English the only marker of aspect is discontinuous morpheme.

Tense.

In English the system of tenses in enriched through its development. Development of tense in Russian and English shows radical differences. In Russian the modern paradigm became more limited in comparison with Old Russian, it has been reduced from 7 to 3 forms.

Old Russian	Modern Russian	Old English	Modern English
7 forms	3 forms	2 forms	3 forms
Present веду Imperfect (=past cont) ведяхъ, ведяше Aorist (=Past Indefinite) ведохъ, веде Perfect (Present Perf) Есмь вел Far-Past (=used to) бяхъ вел Future (Fl) поведу Future Perfect буду велъ	Present disappeared perfective aspect Past Future	Present ic cume Past ic com	Present I come Past I came Future I shall/will come

In English the paradigm became wider, because in ME Future was added to past and present.

VOICE

The category of voice shows relations between the subject and the object of the action. Most languages have active and passive meanings which are universal and it's possible to change the positions of the subject and the object. The rest voice meanings have some specificity.

Russian	English
3 forms		2 forms
Active	For transitive verbs only	Active	1) Active meaning
Passive	2) reflexive meaning
Middle-reflexive (-ся)	1) reflexive meaning	3) reciprocal meaning
2) reciprocal meaning	4) middle meaning
3) generalized reflexive meaning	Passive

MOOD

most modal means coincide in two languages (modal verbs, modal words, moods (should write, написал бы)).

The primary subdivision of mood is reality/irreality which also coincide. The basic difference is in the structure of irreali9ty. In Russian only one undifferentiated oblique mood is used. It is expressed by particle бы and the verb in the past which can also be linked with conjunction чтобы. The Russian form has no tense distinction, but in English tense distinctions are expressed by perfect forms. Besides particle бы in colloquial speech the imperative form can denote supposition (скажи он это). The English oblique mood includes at least 4 forms:

1. subjunctive I (long live the king)

2. subjunctive II (if he helped us)

3. conditional mood (would+inf)

4. suppositional mood (should+inf)

PERSON

in any language 3 forms of person are used and it is a kind of universal. It corresponds to 3 basic roles of any communicative act:

1) the speaker

2) the addressee

3) non-participant of the action

in synthetic languages singular and plural forms are marked by inflections. In analytical languages the system of forms is minimal.

12/12/11

TYPOLOGY OF THE WORD-GROUP

1. typological constants in syntax

2. types of word-groups in Russian and English
a) verbal
b) nominal
c) adjectival
d) adverbial

Syntactic relations are universal for all flective languages (subordination, predication, coordination) but the means of their formal expression may differ. Most common means are:

- inflections. This means is typical of synthetic languages.

- form words

- word order

the rest two means – of analytical languages.

The use of inflections results in agreement and case government.

Agreement uses inflexions in both words in case of government inflexion is added to the adjunct only.

Word order is accompanied by adjoinment and inclosure.

Form words are recompanied by prepositional government.

Actually flective languages use different combinations of all these means, so it's only possible to state the priority of some technique.

Professor Gak compared syntactic means in a wide group of flective languages and on the basis of this comparison he introduced a specific syntactical classification.

Typology of syntactic links in English and Russian

Language type	link	English	Russian
Zero type: A+B	adjoinment	++ all parts of speech: a red dress two boys wrote a letter discussed problem	+ adv, inf adverbial participle (деепричастие) очень хорошо уметь читать молчишь, слушая
Morphological type: Ax+Bx A+BX	Agreement case government	+ only demonstrative pronouns: these pens, this pen + only pronouns: sent him/her/them	++ all parts of speech красная книга они делали первый удар ++ all parts of speech: полный радости доволен этим решать задачу
Analytical type: A+x+B	Prepositional government	++ all parts of speech: full of joy graduate from smth father of the boy satisfied with it	- (always accompanied by cases) Mixed type instead
Mixed type: A+x+Bx	Prepositional+ case government	+ only in pron.: lives with him/her/us	++ all parts of speech: решить без труда решивший без труда труд без отдыха трое в лодке

Conclusion:

this classification ones again proves that there are no pure language types. So, typological constants in syntax reveal specific combination of means used in each language.

Typology of word groups in Russian and English

Coordinative and subordinative word groups (WG) are most frequent in both languages. Predicative WG are disputable and if they are singled out, they are connected with the use of verbals.

Coordinative groups are isomorphic in Russian and English, it means that in both languages we can change the position of elements. In both languages the same parts of speech are use in such WG and all components are used in the same syntactic function. Distinctions are mostly connected with subordinate groups.

Verbal WG.

In verbal WG the role of prepositions is more important in English than in Russian and there are 2 reasons for it:

1. in English mostly prepositions are used to express syntactic links.

2. Prepositions can change the lexical meaning of the verb (phrasal verbs).

The valency of the same word in E and R can be different and it can result in mistakes while teaching. The verb “help” in E requires an object: “help smb do smth”. But in R it is possible to use it without an object. “remind of” - we can't use “remind” without “of”. In R – напоминать о чем-то, но и напоминать кого-то.

Typical models of verbal WG.

Some of them are allomorphic, some are isomorphic.

Verbal:

VN, VprepN, VD, Vvinf, Vving, VA, (iso-) / VNVinf, VprepNVinf (allo-)

VN:

писал письмо, wrote a letter

VprepN:

go to school, ходить в школу

VD:

ran quickly, бежал быстро

Vvinf:

like to read,люблю читать

Vving:

like reading, люблю чтение

VA:

сидел усталый, feel tired

at the same time there are some specific types:

VNVinf: want smb to do smth: saw him run

VprepNVinf: rely on smb to do smth: rely on you to help me

in English in some verbal WG pronoun “it” should be used as an empty object. e.g. I find it strange.

Nominal WG

AN:

the most frequent pattern. They are basically the same in 2 languages but in R the attribute is used before the noun even if it is expressed by a very long phrase: богатая полезными ископаемыми страна. A country rich in natural resources. In English the adjective must precede the noun immediately, so the attributive group must be used post-positively.

Nvinf:

in English this pattern is much more frequent than in Russian. Any English noun can be followed by the infinitive. e.g. a room to live, a cake to ea. In Russian only several words with modal meaning are used in this pattern. Решение отметить, стремление жить, желание выиграть. \

NprepN:

it is absolutely isomorphic. The book on the shelf, книга на полке.

NN:

these patterns are wide different in R and E. in E the second noun is the head: a summer dress, while in R the head is the 1st component: отец друга.

N'sN:

typical only of English. Has some grammar peculiarities. If the head has several attributes, the noun in possessive case should be used at the very beginning. Predeterminers: both, all, half, most: all John's books. In R the idea is expressed in different construction.

ND:

isomorphic (absolutely): a sit behind, место сзади

Adjectival WG:

AN:

In R the A as the head is placed before the noun, like богатый нефтью, полный воды. In E the equivalent expressions are usually expressed by prepositional groups: rich in oil, full of water. In E the pattern NA is used and the A is the head: a bit tired, colour blind.

AA:

is typical of E only, and it denotes the intensity of colour: dark green, light blue, which corresponds to composite Ws in R: темно-зеленый.

AprepN:

is isomorphic. R: зависимый от ч-то, dependent on smth.

AVinf:

has some specific features. Cleaver to answer, quick to follow. R готовый помочь, желающий помочь (modal meaning)

Adverbial WG:

DA:

adverbial WG ae mostly isomorphic. In both languages adverbs are divided into 2 types:

- regular that are used both with adjective and verbs, e.g.: unreasonably cruel (did it unreasonably)

- adverbs/intensifiers: a little/pretty good, довольно, гораздо, слегка

Sometimes both types of adverbs are used in the same group and in this case they constitute the adverbial type: very distinctly (DD)

SENTENCE ANALYSIS

typology of the sentence.

1. typology of sentence parts

2. sentence types in R and E

Comparison of sentence parts in two languages.

R and E as well as all IE languages belong to nominative ones. It means that the subject is expressed by the Nominative case irrespective of the type of predicate. Besides in such languages the predicate acquires the formal sign of the subject because of their agreement. At the same time it is possible to single out some constructions that are contradictory to nominative structure. These are rudiments of the ancient IE language where subject-object relations were expressed in many ways. In Russian, e.g., there exists the so-called Dative construction where the logical subject is expressed by Dative case: мне холодно, тепло, кажется. Mainly they express physical or moral state. If we compare the equivalents in different languages we find differences like “I'm cold”. In E there's also a case of Dative construction which is still used like “it pleases me” instead of “I like it”.

One more type of R sentences is in contradiction with nominative structure. The logical subject here is used in Instrumental case like его убило молнией, солдата ранило пулей.

Дата добавления: 2015-08-29