Neutrality and Politics in Research

The ethical considerations of sociologists lie not only in the methods used, but in the way that re-

suits are interpreted. Max Weber (1949:1-49, original edition 1904) recognized that sociologists would be influenced by their own personal values in selecting questions for research. In his view, that was perfectly acceptable, but under no condi­tions could a researcher allow his or her personal feelings to influence the interpretation of data. In Weber's phrase, sociologists must practice value neutrality in their research.

As part of this neutrality, investigators have an ethical obligation to accept research findings even when the data run counter to their own personal views, to theoretically based explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs. Durkheim countered popular conceptions when he reported that social (rather than supernatural) forces were an impor­tant factor in suicide. Similarly, Humphreys chal­lenged traditional American suspicions about homosexual men when he found that users of tearooms were not preying on heterosexual ado­lescents or younger boys.

Some sociologists believe that it is impossible for scholars to prevent their personal values from influencing their work. As a result, Weber's call for a value-free sociology has been criticized on the grounds that it leads the public to accept soci­ological conclusions without exploring the biases of the researchers. Furthermore, Alvin Gouldner (1970:439-440), among others, has suggested that sociologists may use objectivity as a sacred justification for remaining uncritical of existing institutions and centers of power. These argu­ments are attacks not so much on Weber himself as on how his goals have been incorrectly inter­preted. As we have seen, Weber was quite clear that sociologists may bring values to their subject matter. In his view, however, they must not con­fuse their own values with the social reality under study (Bendix, 1968:495).

Peter Rossi (1987:73) admits that "in my pro­fessional work as a sociologist, my liberal inclina­tions have led me to undertake applied social re­search in the hope that... my research might contribute to the general liberal aim of social re­form...." Yet, in line with Weber's view of value neutrality, Rossi's commitment to rigorous re­search methods and objective interpretation of data has sometimes led him to controversial find­ings not necessarily supportive of his own liberal values. For example, when Rossi and a team of researchers carefully attempted to measure the

CHAPTER TWO ♦ METHODS

OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

extent of homelessness in Chicago in the mid-1980s, they arrived at estimates of the city's homeless population far below those offered (with little firm documentation) by the Chicago Coalition for the Homeless. As a result, Rossi was bitterly attacked by coalition members for damag­ing social reform efforts by minimizing the extent of homelessness. Having been through similar controversies before, Rossi (1987:79) concludes that "in the short term, good social research will often be greeted as a betrayal of one or another side to a particular controversy." But he insists that such applied research is exciting to do and can make important long-term contributions to our understanding of social problems.

The issue of value neutrality becomes espe­cially delicate when one considers the relation­ship of sociology to government. Max Weber urged that sociology remain an autonomous dis­cipline and not become unduly influenced by any one segment of society. According to his ideal of value neutrality, sociologists must remain free to reveal information that is embarrassing to government or, for that matter, supportive of existing institutions (L. Coser, 1977:219-222; Gouldner, 1962). Thus, researchers investigating a prison riot must be ready to examine objectively not only the behavior of inmates but also the con­duct of prison officials before and during the out­break. This may be more difficult if sociologists fear that findings critical of governmental institu­tions will jeopardize their chances of obtaining federal support.

In the United States, the federal government has become the major source of funding for both basic and applied sociological research. This rela­tionship between sociology and government be­came a matter of public controversy in the early 1980s. In a move viewed by many social scientists as politically motivated, federal agencies sharply reduced yearly increases in support for research in sociology, psychology, and other social sci­ences. For example, National Science Foundation funding for the social sciences from 1980 to 1988 remained unchanged in constant dollars. Applied sociology continues to receive better treatment than basic sociology; programs related to drug abuse and AIDS have been especially favored (COSSA, 1987).

Although the American Sociological Associa­tion's Code of Professional Ethics expects sociolo­gists to disclose all funding sources, the code does not address the issue of whether sociologists who accept funding from a particular agency may also accept their perspective on what needs to be stud­ied. Lewis Coser (1956:27) has argued that as American sociologists have increasingly turned from basic sociological research to applied re­search for government agencies and the private sector, "they have relinquished to a large extent the freedom to choose their own problems, sub­stituting the problems of their clients for those which might have interested them on purely the­oretical grounds." Viewed in this light, the impor­tance of government funding for sociological studies raises troubling questions for those who cherish Weber's ideal of value neutrality in re­search.

WRITING A LIBRARY RESEARCH REPORT

I

n order to write a research report, students must follow procedures similar to those used by soci­ologists in conducting original research. Once a topic has been selected, you must define the problems that you wish to study. A review of the literature will generally require library research.

Where can you find information? The following steps will be helpful:

1 Check this textbook and other textbooks that you own. Do not forget to begin with the materials closest at hand.

2 Use the card catalog at the library. This alphabeti­cal index contains information on all books available in a particular library. Consult all subject headings relevant to the topic. The two-volume Library of Con­gress list of subject headings may be helpful in this process.

3 Locate useful articles that have appeared in peri­odicals. Three research guides found in most libraries will be especially valuable. The Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature indexes many popular maga­zines, including Newsweek, Ebony, and the New Re­public. The Social Sciences Index lists articles in pro­fessional journals such as the American Sociological Review, the American Journal of Sociology, and Social Problems. A third index, entitled Sociological Ab­stracts, lists articles from appropriate journals and also provides brief summaries.

4 Investigate doing online searches. Many libraries can conduct computerized searches of indexes using "keywords" that you select. For example, you could examine abstracts of all sociological articles on "nursing homes" published in the last five years.

5 Consult the Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, which concentrates on material of interest to social scientists. Each article includes references for further information.

6 Examine government documents. The United States government, states and cities, and the United Nations publish information on virtually every subject of interest to social science researchers. Many univer­sity libraries have access to a wide range of govern­ment reports. Consult the librarian for assistance in locating such materials.

7 Use newspapers. Major newspapers publish in­dexes annually or even weekly that are useful in locat­ing information about specific events or issues.

8 Ask people, organizations, and agencies con­cerned with the topic for information and assistance. Be as specific as possible in making requests.

9 If you run into difficulties, consult the instructor, teaching assistant, or librarian.

Once all research has been completed, the task of writing the report can begin. Here are a few tips:

♦ Be sure the topic you have chosen is not too broad. You must be able to cover it adequately in a reason­able amount of time and a reasonable number of pages.

♦ Develop an outline for your report. Be sure that you have an introduction and a conclusion that relate to each other—and that the discussion proceeds logically throughout the paper. Use headings within the paper if they will improve clarity and organization.

♦ Do not leave all the writing until the last minute. It is best to write a rough draft, let it sit for a few days, and then take a fresh look before beginning revi­sions.

♦ If possible, read your paper aloud. Doing so may be helpful in locating sections or phrases that do not make sense.

Remember that all information which you have ob­tained from other sources must be cited. If an author's exact words are used, it is essential that they be placed within quotation marks. Even if you reword someone else's ideas, you must indicate the source of these ideas.

Some professors may require that students use foot­notes in research reports. Others will allow students to employ the form of referencing used in this textbook, which follows the format of the American Sociological Association. If you see "(Merton, 1968:27)" listed after a statement or paragraph, it means that the material has been adapted from page 27 of a work published by Merton in 1968 and listed in the reference section at the back of this textbook.

♦ SUMMARY

Sociologists are committed to the use of scientific method in their research efforts. In this chapter, we examine the basic principles of scientific method and study various techniques used by sociologists in con­ducting research.

1 There are five basic steps in scientific method: de­fining the problem, reviewing the literature, formulat­ing the hypothesis, selecting the research design and then collecting and analyzing data, and developing the conclusion.

2 Whenever researchers wish to study abstract con­cepts such as intelligence or prejudice, they must de­velop workable operational definitions.

3 A hypothesis usually states a possible relationship between two or more variables.

4 According to scientific method, research results must possess both validity and reliability.

5. By using specialized sampling techniques, sociolo­gists avoid the necessity of testing everyone in a popu­lation.

6 The conclusion of a research study should ideally generate ideas for future investigation.

7 When sociologists wish to study a cause-and-effect relationship they may conduct an experiment.

8 In the classic method of conducting an experi­ment, an experimental group is exposed to an indepen­dent variable while a control group is not.

9 Participant observation allows sociologists to study certain behaviors and communities that cannot be in­vestigated through other research methods.

10 The two principal forms of survey research are the interview and the questionnaire.

11 Unobtrusive measures are research techniques that have no impact on what is being studied.

12 The Code of Professional Ethics of the American Sociological Association includes among its basic prin­ciples objectivity and integrity in research, respect lot the subject's right to privacy, and preservation of confi­dentiality.

13 Max Weber urged sociologists to practice value neutrality in their research by ensuring that their per­sonal feelings do not influence the interpretation of data.

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