Loan formation

loan translation = translation of the elements of the foreign word, e.g. OE Monan dæg ‘Monday’ (Lat. Lunae dies), Fr. gratte-ciel and Sp. rasca·cielos ‘both literally: scrape-sky’ (E skyscraper), E world view (G Welt·anschauung), AmSp. manzana de Adán (E Adam’s apple; vs. EurSp. nuez [de la garganta] ‘literally: nut [of the throat]’).

loan rendering = translation of part of the elements of the foreign word, e.g. E brother·hood (Lat. frater·nitas [= Lat. frater ‘brother’ + suffix]).

loan creation coinage independent of the foreign word, but created out of the desire to replace a foreign word, e.g. E brandy (Fr. cognac).

loan meaning = indigenous word to which the meaning of the foreign word is transferred, e.g. OE cniht ‘servant + disciple of Jesus’ (Lat. discipulus ‘student, disciple of Jesus’), OE heofon ‘sky, abode of the gods + Christian heaven’ (Lat. caelum ‘sky, abode of the gods, Christian heaven’), G Maus and Fr souris ‘rodent + computer device’ (E mouse ‘rodent, computer device’). [15] On the basis of an importation-substitution distinction, Haugen distinguishes three basic groups of borrowings: “ Loanwords show morphemic importation without substitution. Loanblends show morphemic substitution as well as importation. Loanshifts show morphemic substitution without importation”. Haugen has later refined his model in a review of Gneuss’s book on Old English loan coinages, whose classification, in turn, is the one by Betz again. Weinreich differentiates between two mechanisms of lexical interference, namely those initiated by simple words and those initiated by compound words and phrases. Weinreich defines simple words “from the point of view of the bilinguals who perform the transfer, rather than that of the descriptive linguist. Accordingly, the category ‘simple’ words also include compounds that are transferred in unanalysed form”. After this general classification, Weinreich then resorts to Betz’s terminology. Models that try to integrate borrowing in an overall classification of vocabulary change, or onomasiologicl change, have recently been proposed by Peter Koch and Joachim Grzega Ghil'ad Zuckermann's analysis of multisourced neologization [20] challenges Eina Haugen's classic typology of lexical borrowing. While Haugen categorizes borrowing into either substitution or importation, Zuckermann explores cases of "simultaneous substitution and importation" in the form of camouflaged borrowing. He proposes a new classification of multisourced neologisms, words deriving from two or more sources at the same time. Examples of such mechanisms are phonetic matching, semanticized phonetic matching and phono-semantic matching. Phono-semantic matching is distinct from calquing. While calquing includes (semantic) translation, it does not consist of phonetic matching (i.e. retaining the approximate sound of the borrowed word through matching it with a similar-sounding pre-existent word/morpheme in the target language). A loanword can also be called a borrowing. The noun borrowing refers to the process of speakers adopting words from a source language into their native language. "Loan" and "borrowing" are of course metaphors, because there is no literal lending process. There is no transfer from one language to another, and no "returning" words to the source language. The words simply come to be used by a speech community that speaks a different language from the one these words originated in.

Reborrowing is the process where a word travels from one language to another and then back to the originating language in a different form or with a different meaning. This is indicated by A→B→A, where A is the originating language. In some cases the borrowing process can be more complicated and the words might move through different languages before coming back to the originating language. The single move from one language to the other is called "loan" (see loanword). Reborrowing is the result of more than one loan, when the final recipient language is the same as the originating one. Examples:

Old Norse:	klubba	→	English:	club	→	Swedish:	("association of people")
French:	tenez	→	English:	tennis	→	French:	tennis (the sport)
Greek:	κίνημα (kínēma, movement)	→	French:	cinéma	→	Greek:	σινεμά (sinemá, cinema)
Dutch:	bolwerk (bulwark, bastion)	→	French:	boulevard	→	Dutch:	boulevard ("broad avenue")
Dutch:	manneken "little man" ^[	→	French:	mannequin	→	Dutch:	mannequin ("catwalk model")
Middle Dutch:	snacken "to gasp/bite at" /'snɑk-ən/	→	English:	to snack	→	Dutch:	snacken /'snæk-ən/
English:	crack (news, gossip)	→	Irish:	craic (fun)	→	English:	Craic [11]

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