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I. Some spelling rules

We use the Present Perfect for an action that happened in the past and may happen again. We can show that something will not happen again by using the past simple. | Sometimes the Past Perfect does not denote priority but only the completion of the action. | I. The formation of the Perfect Continuous Tense | I. The formation of thePerfect Continuous Tense | I. The formation of the Future-Indefinite-in-the-Past |


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I. Doubling the final consonant.

Rule 1. A final single consonant letter is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel (-able, -ing, -er, -est, etc.) if

a) the last syllable of the word is stressed, and

b) the final consonant is preceded by a short vowel represented by a single letter,

e.g. red-redder, redden, reddish; begin-beginning; thin-thinned, thinner. But: repeat-repeated, repeating; develop-developed, developing.

Note 1. The words handicap, kidnap, outfit, worship are exceptions:

handicapped-handicapping; kidnapped-kidnapping; outfitted-outfltting-ouifitter; worshipped-worshipping-worshipper.

Note 2. Final r is doubled if preceded by a letter representing a stressed vowel, no matter if it is long or short (but not a diphthong): e.g. occur-occurred

refer-referred But: differ-differed

appear-appeared

Note 3. Final l is doubled if it is preceded by a short vowel (stressed or

unstressed). It is not doubled if preceded by a long vowel or a diphthong: e.g. travel-travelling

expel-expelled But: reveal-revealed

Rule 2.

A final single consonant is not doubled if

a) preceded by an unstressed vowel: e.g. open-opened, opening

limit-limited-limiting;

b) preceded by a vowel sound represented by two letters: e.g. look-looked-looking

turn-turned-turning;

c) the suffix begins with a consonant: e.g. hot-hotly (but: hottest)

forget-forgetful (but: unforgettable).

 

II. Mute Final e.

Rule 1.

Final mute e is usually dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel letter; otherwise it would make two consecutive vowels: guide-guidance; amuse-amusing; fame-famous; refuse-refusal.

But: age-ageing.

Note 1. e is retained to show pronunciation in such words as: courage-corageous; advantage-advantageous; service-serviceable.

Note 2. e is also kept after o: toe-toeing; shoe-shoeing; canoe-canoeing; tiptoe-tiptoeing.

Note 3. Verbs ending in -ie change the ie into у before -ing to avoid a double i: die-dying; tie-tying; lie-lying.

Note 4. Double e (ее) is retained before all suffixes except those beginning with e (• ed, -er, -est): agree-agreeable; see-seeing.

Note 5. Rule 1 is not strictly observed in the case of monosyllabic words when they are likely to be misread: likeable; seatable or likable, seatable.

Rule 2.

Mute e is retained before a suffix beginning with a consonant (to keep the pronunciation): safe-safety; nine-nineteen; whole-wholesome; care-careful. Exceptions to the rule: due-duly; true-truly; whole-wholly; argue-argument; nine-ninth.

III. Final -y and Its Modifications.

Rule 1. Words ending in -y preceded by a consonant change -y into -;' before all endings except -ing: dry-dries; forty-fortieth; cry-cried; carry-carriage; clumsy-clumsier; pity-pitiful; happy happily; merry-merriment. But: drying, crying, frying, applying.

Note 1. Words ending in -y preceded by a consonant drop the -y before suffixes beginning with -4: -ic, -ical, -ism, -ist:

economy-economic, economical;

history-historic, historical;

geology-deological, geologist

Note 2. Final -y is retained:

a) in personal names: Mary-Marys, Gatsby-the Gatsbys;

b) in some words before the suffixes -hood, -ish, -1st, -like, -thing: babyhood, copyist, ladyship, ladylike, anything, everything;

c) in some monosyllabic words before -er, -est, -ly, -ness: shy-shyer, shyest, shyness; sly-slyer, slyest, slyly, slyness; dry-dryly, dryness (both forms are possible in dryer-drier, flyer-flier).

 

Note 3. Final -y changes to -e before -ous: piteous, beauteous, plenteous, duteous.

 

Rule 2. Final -y preceded by a vowel letter is retained before all suffixes: day-days, play-playful, pay-pays, payment; enjoy-enjoyable.

Exceptions: gay-gaily, gaiety; day-daily.

 

 


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