Special types of nationality rules

1. CORPORATIONS

International law usually refers to certain links to determine the nationality of a corporation; the nationality of the state that creates it, the center of administration, the national basis of ownership and control, or the principal place of business. The attribution of nationality to corporations is mainly intended for the purposes of exercising diplomatic protection in respect of the corporation and its shareholders.

2. VESSELS

A ship has the nationality of the state in which it is registered regardless of the nationality of the owner or the nationality of the crew. The conditions of registration are defined by each state. However, to be recognized by the international community, the registration must reflect an effective link between the vessel and the country of registry. Some states have permitted registration of ships under extremely favourable conditions and by payment of a fee. The countries mainly involved in this practice were Panama, Liberia and Honduras, the "Panlibhon group". This practice leads to the creation of flags of convenience and is a way to escape from strict maritime regulation. Most of the vessels registered had no connection with the country of registry and this raised many problems in the field of maritime security, responsibility, and insurance in case of accident. Flags of convenience are now denounced on the grounds that an effective link must exist between the vessel and the country of registry. This requirement is repeated in the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea.

3. AIRCRAFT AND SPACECRAFT

The same rule is applied to aircraft and spacecraft. They have the nationality of the state that has registered them.

Notes:

1) Calvo clause [36] оговорка Кальво (устанавливает, что любые споры по инвестициям должны разбираться в судах той страны, где инвестированы средства; включается в контракты, касающиеся международных инвестиций)

2) flag of convenience [37] — удобный флаг; приписка судна к порту той страны, которая предоставляет лучшие условия по налогообложению, безопасности и т.п.

flag of convenience [38]

a flag of a country under which a ship is registered in order to avoid financial charges or restrictive regulations in the owner's country. = registry of a merchant ship under a foreign flag in order to profit from less restrictive regulations

Exercise 7. Analyse and memorize the following terms and their definitions:

British citizenship [39]. One of three forms of citizenship introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981, which replaced citizenship of the UK and Colonies. The others are British Dependent Territories citizenship and British Overseas citizenship.

On the date on which it came into force (1 January 1983), the Act conferred British citizenship automatically on every existing citizen of the UK and Colonies who was entitled to the right of abode in the UK under the Immigration Act 1971. As from that date, there have been four principal ways of acquiring the citizenship - by birth, by descent, by registration, and by naturalization. A person acquires it by birth only if he is born in the UK and his father or mother is either a British citizen or settled in the UK (i.e. resident there, and not restricted by the immigration laws as to length of stay). If born outside the UK, he acquires it by descent if one of his parents has British citizenship (but not, normally, if that citizenship was itself acquired by descent). The British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983 makes special provisions to confer British citizenship on those people with connections with the Falkland Islands. The British Nationality (Hong Kong) Act 1997 gave additional rights to certain people from Hong Kong to acquire British citizenship "by descent" or "otherwise than with descent". Registration may be applied for by a minor, but adults are eligible only if they have particular links with the UK. In some cases (e.g. British Dependent Territories citizens, British Overseas citizens, British protected persons, and British subjects with certain residential qualifications), it is a right; in others, it is at the discretion of the Secretary of State.

Any adult may apply for naturalization but there are residential and other requirements (e.g. proof of good character), and its grant is always discretionary.

A registered or naturalized citizen may be deprived of his citizenship if he obtained it improperly, behaves disloyally, or is sentenced during the first five years to imprisonment exceeding one year.

British Dependent Territories citizenship [40]. One of three forms of citizenship introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981 to replace citizenship of the UK and Colonies. The others are British citizenship and British Overseas citizenship. The dependent territories for the purposes of this form of citizenship are listed in a schedule to the Act; they include Bermuda and Gibraltar, among others.

Onthe date on which it came into force (1 January 1983), the Act conferred the citizenship automatically on a large number of existing citizens of the UK and Colonies on the grounds of birth, registration, or naturalization in a dependent territory or descent from a parent or grandparent who had that citizenship on one of those grounds. As from that date, acquisition (and deprivation in the case of registered or naturalized citizens) have been governed by principles similar to those applying to British citizenship, except that acquisition by registration relates almost exclusively to minors. A British Dependent Territories citizen can become entitled to registration as a British citizen by virtue of UK residence. On 1 July 1997, those who were British Dependent Territories citizens by virtue of a connection with Hong Kong ceased to be British Dependent Territories citizens. However, they were entitled to acquire a new form of British nationality, known as British National (Overseas), by registration.

British National (Overseas) [41] A form of British nationality that those who were British Dependent Territories citizens by virtue of a connection with Hong Kong may acquire by registration. They ceased to be British Dependent Territories citizens on 1 July 1997.

British Overseas citizenship [42] One of three forms of citizenship introduced by the British Nationality Act 1981 to replace citizenship of the UK and Colonies. On the date on which it came into force (1 January 1983), the Act conferred the citizenship automatically on every existing citizen of the UK and Colonies who did not qualify for either of the other new forms (British citizenship and British Dependent Territories citizenship). Acquisition as from that date has been by registration only, and this is confined almost completely to minors. A British Overseas citizen may become entitled to registration as a British citizen by virtue of UK residence.

British protected person [43]. One of a class of people defined as such by an order under the British Nationality Act 1981 or the Solomon Islands Act 1978 because of their connection with former protectorates, protected states, and trust territories. A British protected person may become entitled to registration as a British citizen by reason of UK residence.

British subject [44]. Under the British Nationality Act 1948, a secondary status that was common to all who were primarily citizens either of the UK and Colonies or of one of the independent Commonwealth countries. This status was also shared by a limited number of people who did not have any such primary citizenship, including former British subjects who were also citizens of Eire (as it then was) or who could have acquired one of the primary citizenships but did not in fact do so.

Under the British Nationality Act 1981 (which replaced the 1948 Act as from 1 January 1983), the status of British subject was confined to those who had enjoyed it under the former Act without having one of the primary citizenships; the expression ‘commonwealth citizen’ was redefined as a secondary status of more universal application. The Act provided for minors to be able to apply for registration as British subjects and for British subjects to become entitled to registration as British citizens by virtue of UK residence.

Multiple citizenship [45], or multiple nationality, is a status in which a person is concurrently regarded as a citizen under the laws of more than one state.

Exercise 8. Restore the text by inserting the spaces where necessary

Dualcitizenship (beingacitizenoftwonations),ordualnationality,isbyfarthemostcommontypeofmultiplecitizenship,butnothingininternationallawpreventsanyonefromestablishingcitizenshipinmorethantwocountries.Somecountriesdonotrecogniseitscitizensashavingnationalityofanyothercountry,orrecognisesoonlyincertaincircumstances(e.g.Japanrecognisesonlythoseofunderagenationals).Othersmayrecogniseasmanynationalitiesasacitizenhas

Exercise 9: Choose the most appropriate underlined word:

Passport [46]

A passport is a formal identity d ocument/permission/certificate or certification issued by a national government that identifies the holder as a national of a particular state, and requests document/certificate/permission, in the name of the sovereign or government of the issuing country, for the bearer to be permitted to enter and pass through other countries. Passports are connected with the right of legal protection/vindication/violation abroad and the right to enter one's country of nationality. Passports usually refrain/permit / contain the holder's photograph, signature, date of birth, nationality, and sometimes other means of individual identification. Many countries are in the process of developing biometric properties for their passports in order to further confirm that the person presenting the passport is the lawful/legitimate/legal holder.

A passport is usually necessary for international/domestic/business travel, as it normally needs to be shown at a country's border, although there exist agreements whereby the citizens of some countries can enter some other countries with other identity documents. It may be stamped or sealed with visas issued by the allied/sending/host country authorising entry.

Some governments try to control the movements of their own and other citizens by issuing so-called internal passports. For instance, in the Soviet Union, all citizens were issued registration/propiska/visa to control their movement around the country. This system has been partly retained in Russia.

As identifying documents, passports are frequent subjects of theft and forgery. See also micronations.

Exercise 10: Match the text on the left with the text on the right.

1. EU citizenship offers certain rights and privileges	a. in any position (including national civil services with the exception of sensitive positions such as defence).
2. The right of residence connotes not only the right of abode, but also the right to apply to work	b. within the EU; in many areas EU citizens have the same or similar rights as native citizens in member states.
3. EU member states also use a common passport design, burgundy coloured, with the name of the member state, national	c. be the "fundamental status of nationals of Member States".
4. Union citizenship continues to gain in status and the European Court of Justice has stated that Union citizenship will	d. seal, and the title "European Union" (or its translation), and most also use a common format for their driving licences in order to simplify their use within the whole EU.

European Union (EU) citizenship [47]

The Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of citizenship of the European Union. This citizenship flows from national citizenship — one holds the nationality of an EU member state and as a result becomes a "citizen of the Union" in addition.

EU citizenship offers certain rights and privileges within the EU; in many areas EU citizens have the same or similar rights as native citizens in member states. Such rights granted to EU citizens include:

· freedom of movement and the right of residence within the territory of the Member States;

· right to vote and stand as a candidate at elections to the European Parliament and at municipal elections in the Member State of residence;

· right to diplomatic and consular protection;

· right of petition to the European Parliament; and

· right to refer to the Ombudsman.

The right of residence connotes not only the right of abode, but also the right to apply to work in any position (including national civil services with the exception of sensitive positions such as defence).

EU member states also use a common passport design, burgundy coloured, with the name of the member state, national seal, and the title "European Union" (or its translation), and most also use a common format for their driving licences in order to simplify their use within the whole EU.

Union citizenship continues to gain in status and the European Court of Justice has stated that Union citizenship will be the "fundamental status of nationals of Member States" (see Case C-184/99 Rudy Grzelczyk v Centre Public d'Aide Sociale d'Ottignes-Louvain-la-Neuve, [2001] ECR I-6193, para 31). The European Commission has affirmed that Union citizenship should be the fundamental status of EU nationals, but this is not accepted by many of the member states of the European Union.

Exercise11: Match the words and word combinations listed below on the left with the relevant dictionary definition from the column on the right.

1) Flag of convenience	a) a person's fixed, permanent, and principal home for legal purposes
2) Allegiance	b) the rule by which birth in a state is sufficient to confer nationality, irrespective of the nationality of one's parents
3) Domicile	c) a status in which a person is concurrently regarded as a citizen under the laws of more than one state
4) Jus soli	d) a formal identity document or certification issued by a national government that identifies the holder as a national of a particular state
5) Jus sanguinis	e) the legal relationship between a person and a country; the legal status of being a citizen or subject of a particular country
6) The right of abode	f) registry of a merchant ship under a foreign flag in order to profit from less restrictive regulations
7) Naturalization	g) the relation between an individual and a particular nation which carries with it rights to political participation
8) Multiple citizenship	h) by operation of law (from the law)
9) Passport	i) the principle that the nationality of children is the same as that of their parents, irrespective of their place of birth.
10) Citizenship	j) an individual's freedom from immigration control in a particular country
11) Nationality	k) loyalty, as of a subject to his sovereign or of a citizen to his country
12) Ex lege	l) process of granting nationality or citizenship to an alien

Exercise12: Read the excerpts from the text of the European Convention on Nationality and answer the following questions:

1) What are the purposes and the object of the European Convention on Nationality?

2) What does the term ‘nationality’ mean?

3) What is the competence of the state relating to nationality?

4) What principles should the rules on nationality of each state be based on?

5) What rules relating to the acquisition of nationality does the European Convention on Nationality establish?

6) What rules relating to the loss and the recovery of nationality are envisaged in the European Convention on Nationality?

7) What are the rights and the duties related to multiple nationality?

Text 5. European Convention on Nationality [48]

Strasbourg, 6.XI.1997

Preamble

The member States of the Council of Europe and the other States signatory to this Convention,

Considering that the aim of the Council of Europe is to achieve greater unity between its members;

Bearing in mind the numerous international instruments relating to nationality, multiple nationality and statelessness;

Recognising that, in matters concerning nationality, account should be taken both of the legitimate interests of States and those of individuals;

Desiring to promote the progressive development of legal principles concerning nationality, as well as their adoption in internal law and desiring to avoid, as far as possible, cases of statelessness;

Desiring to avoid discrimination in matters relating to nationality;

Aware of the right to respect for family life as contained in Article 8 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms;

Noting the varied approach of States to the question of multiple nationality and recognising that each State is free to decide which consequences it attaches in its internal law to the fact that a national acquires or possesses another nationality;

Agreeing on the desirability of finding appropriate solutions to consequences of multiple nationality and in particular as regards the rights and duties of multiple nationals;

Considering it desirable that persons possessing the nationality of two or more States Parties should be required to fulfil their military obligations in relation to only one of those Parties;

Considering the need to promote international co-operation between the national authorities responsible for nationality matters,

Have agreed as follows:

Chapter I – General matters

Article 1 – Object of the Convention

This Convention establishes principles and rules relating to the nationality of natural persons and rules regulating military obligations in cases of multiple nationality, to which the internal law of States Parties shall conform.

Article 2 – Definitions

For the purpose of this Convention:

a. "nationality" means the legal bond between a person and a State and does not indicate the person's ethnic origin;

b. "multiple nationality" means the simultaneous possession of two or more nationalities by the same person;

c. "child" means every person below the age of 18 years unless, under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier;

d. "internal law" means all types of provisions of the national legal system, including the constitution, legislation, regulations, decrees, case-law, customary rules and practice as well as rules deriving from binding international instruments.

Chapter II – General principles relating to nationality

Article 3 – Competence of the State

1. Each State shall determine under its own law who are its nationals.

2. This law shall be accepted by other States in so far as it is consistent with applicable international conventions, customary international law and the principles of law generally recognised with regard to nationality.

Article 4 – Principles

The rules on nationality of each State Party shall be based on the following principles:

a. everyone has the right to a nationality;

b. statelessness shall be avoided;

c. no one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his or her nationality;

d. neither marriage nor the dissolution of a marriage between a national of a State Party and an alien, nor the change of nationality by one of the spouses during marriage, shall automatically affect the nationality of the other spouse.

Article 5 – Non-discrimination

1. The rules of a State Party on nationality shall not contain distinctions or include any practice which amount to discrimination on the grounds of sex, religion, race, colour or national or ethnic origin.

2. Each State Party shall be guided by the principle of non-discrimination between its nationals, whether they are nationals by birth or have acquired its nationality subsequently.

Chapter III – Rules relating to nationality

Article 6 – Acquisition of nationality

1. Each State Party shall provide in its internal law for its nationality to be acquired ex lege by the following persons:

a. children one of whose parents possesses, at the time of the birth of these children, the nationality of that State Party, subject to any exceptions which may be provided for by its internal law as regards children born abroad. With respect to children whose parenthood is established by recognition, court order or similar procedures, each State Party may provide that the child acquires its nationality following the procedure determined by its internal law;

b. foundlings found in its territory who would otherwise be stateless.

2. Each State Party shall provide in its internal law for its nationality to be acquired by children born on its territory who do not acquire at birth another nationality. Such nationality shall be granted:

a. at birth ex lege; or

b. subsequently, to children who remained stateless, upon an application being lodged with the appropriate authority, by or on behalf of the child concerned, in the manner prescribed by the internal law of the State Party. Such an application may be made subject to the lawful and habitual residence on its territory for a period not exceeding five years immediately preceding the lodging of the application.

3. Each State Party shall provide in its internal law for the possibility of naturalisation of persons lawfully and habitually resident on its territory. In establishing the conditions for naturalisation, it shall not provide for a period of residence exceeding ten years before the lodging of an application.

4. Each State Party shall facilitate in its internal law the acquisition of its nationality for the following persons:

a. spouses of its nationals;

b. children of one of its nationals, falling under the exception of Article 6, paragraph 1, sub-paragraph a;

c. children one of whose parents acquires or has acquired its nationality;

d. children adopted by one of its nationals;

e. persons who were born on its territory and reside there lawfully and habitually;

f. persons who are lawfully and habitually resident on its territory for a period of time beginning before the age of 18, that period to be determined by the internal law of the State Party concerned;

g. stateless persons and recognised refugees lawfully and habitually resident on its territory.

Article 7 – Loss of nationality ex lege or at the initiative of a State Party

1. A State Party may not provide in its internal law for the loss of its nationality ex lege or at the initiative of the State Party except in the following cases:

a. voluntary acquisition of another nationality;

b. acquisition of the nationality of the State Party by means of fraudulent conduct, false information or concealment of any relevant fact attributable to the applicant;

c. voluntary service in a foreign military force;

d. conduct seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the State Party;

e. lack of a genuine link between the State Party and a national habitually residing abroad;

f. where it is established during the minority of a child that the preconditions laid down by internal law which led to the ex lege acquisition of the nationality of the State Party are no longer fulfilled;

g. adoption of a child if the child acquires or possesses the foreign nationality of one or both of the adopting parents.

2. A State Party may provide for the loss of its nationality by children whose parents lose that nationality except in cases covered by sub-paragraphs c and d of paragraph 1. However, children shall not lose that nationality if one of their parents retains it.

3. A State Party may not provide in its internal law for the loss of its nationality under paragraphs 1 and 2 of this article if the person concerned would thereby become stateless, with the exception of the cases mentioned in paragraph 1, sub-paragraph b, of this article.

Article 8 – Loss of nationality at the initiative of the individual

1. Each State Party shall permit the renunciation of its nationality provided the persons concerned do not thereby become stateless.

2. However, a State Party may provide in its internal law that renunciation may be effected only by nationals who are habitually resident abroad.

Article 9 – Recovery of nationality

Each State Party shall facilitate, in the cases and under the conditions provided for by its internal law, the recovery of its nationality by former nationals who are lawfully and habitually resident on its territory.

Chapter IV – Procedures relating to nationality

Article 10 – Processing of applications

Each State Party shall ensure that applications relating to the acquisition, retention, loss, recovery or certification of its nationality be processed within a reasonable time.

Article 11 – Decisions

Each State Party shall ensure that decisions relating to the acquisition, retention, loss, recovery or certification of its nationality contain reasons in writing.

Article 12 – Right to a review

Each State Party shall ensure that decisions relating to the acquisition, retention, loss, recovery or certification of its nationality be open to an administrative or judicial review in conformity with its internal law.

Article 13 – Fees

1. Each State Party shall ensure that the fees for the acquisition, retention, loss, recovery or certification of its nationality be reasonable.

2. Each State Party shall ensure that the fees for an administrative or judicial review be not an obstacle for applicants.

Chapter V – Multiple nationality

Article 14 – Cases of multiple nationality

1. A State Party shall allow:

a. children having different nationalities acquired automatically at birth to retain these nationalities;

b. its nationals to possess another nationality where this other nationality is automatically acquired by marriage.

2. The retention of the nationalities mentioned in paragraph 1 is subject to the relevant provisions of Article 7 of this Convention.

Article 15 – Other possible cases of multiple nationality

The provisions of this Convention shall not limit the right of a State Party to determine in its internal law whether:

a. its nationals who acquire or possess the nationality of another State retain its nationality or lose it;

b. the acquisition or retention of its nationality is subject to the renunciation or loss of another nationality.

Article 16 – Conservation of previous nationality

A State Party shall not make the renunciation or loss of another nationality a condition for the acquisition or retention of its nationality where such renunciation or loss is not possible or cannot reasonably be required.

Article 17 – Rights and duties related to multiple nationality

1. Nationals of a State Party in possession of another nationality shall have, in the territory of that State Party in which they reside, the same rights and duties as other nationals of that State Party.

2. The provisions of this chapter do not affect:

a. the rules of international law concerning diplomatic or consular protection by a State Party in favour of one of its nationals who simultaneously possesses another nationality;

b. the application of the rules of private international law of each State Party in cases of multiple nationality.

Chapter VI – State succession and nationality

Article 18 – Principles

1. In matters of nationality in cases of State succession, each State Party concerned shall respect the principles of the rule of law, the rules concerning human rights and the principles contained in Articles 4 and 5 of this Convention and in paragraph 2 of this article, in particular in order to avoid statelessness.

2. In deciding on the granting or the retention of nationality in cases of State succession, each State Party concerned shall take account in particular of:

a. the genuine and effective link of the person concerned with the State;

b. the habitual residence of the person concerned at the time of State succession;

c. the will of the person concerned;

d. the territorial origin of the person concerned.

3. Where the acquisition of nationality is subject to the loss of a foreign nationality, the provisions of Article 16 of this Convention shall apply.

Article 19 – Settlement by international agreement

In cases of State succession, States Parties concerned shall endeavour to regulate matters relating to nationality by agreement amongst themselves and, where applicable, in their relationship with other States concerned. Such agreements shall respect the principles and rules contained or referred to in this chapter.

Article 20 – Principles concerning non-nationals

1. Each State Party shall respect the following principles:

a. nationals of a predecessor State habitually resident in the territory over which sovereignty is transferred to a successor State and who have not acquired its nationality shall have the right to remain in that State;

b. persons referred to in sub-paragraph a shall enjoy equality of treatment with nationals of the successor State in relation to social and economic rights.

2. Each State Party may exclude persons considered under paragraph 1 from employment in the public service involving the exercise of sovereign powers.

Chapter VII – Military obligations in cases of multiple nationality

Article 21 – Fulfilment of military obligations

1. Persons possessing the nationality of two or more States Parties shall be required to fulfil their military obligations in relation to one of those States Parties only.

2. The modes of application of paragraph 1 may be determined by special agreements between any of the States Parties.

3. Except where a special agreement which has been, or may be, concluded provides otherwise, the following provisions are applicable to persons possessing the nationality of two or more States Parties:

a. Any such person shall be subject to military obligations in relation to the State Party in whose territory they are habitually resident. Nevertheless, they shall be free to choose, up to the age of 19 years, to submit themselves to military obligations as volunteers in relation to any other State Party of which they are also nationals for a total and effective period at least equal to that of the active military service required by the former State Party;

b. Persons who are habitually resident in the territory of a State Party of which they are not nationals or in that of a State which is not a State Party may choose to perform their military service in the territory of any State Party of which they are nationals;

c. Persons who, in accordance with the rules laid down in paragraphs a and b, shall fulfil their military obligations in relation to one State Party, as prescribed by the law of that State Party, shall be deemed to have fulfilled their military obligations in relation to any other State Party or States Parties of which they are also nationals;

d. Persons who, before the entry into force of this Convention between the States Parties of which they are nationals, have, in relation to one of those States Parties, fulfilled their military obligations in accordance with the law of that State Party, shall be deemed to have fulfilled the same obligations in relation to any other State Party or States Parties of which they are also nationals;

e. Persons who, in conformity with paragraph a, have performed their active military service in relation to one of the States Parties of which they are nationals, and subsequently transfer their habitual residence to the territory of the other State Party of which they are nationals, shall be liable to military service in the reserve only in relation to the latter State Party;

f. The application of this article shall not prejudice, in any respect, the nationality of the persons concerned;

g. In the event of mobilisation by any State Party, the obligations arising under this article shall not be binding upon that State Party.

Article 22 – Exemption from military obligations or alternative civil service

Except where a special agreement which has been, or may be, concluded provides otherwise, the following provisions are also applicable to persons possessing the nationality of two or more States Parties:

a. Article 21, paragraph 3, sub-paragraph c, of this Convention shall apply to persons who have been exempted from their military obligations or have fulfilled civil service as an alternative;

b. persons who are nationals of a State Party which does not require obligatory military service shall be considered as having satisfied their military obligations when they have their habitual residence in the territory of that State Party. Nevertheless, they should be deemed not to have satisfied their military obligations in relation to a State Party or States Parties of which they are equally nationals and where military service is required unless the said habitual residence has been maintained up to a certain age, which each State Party concerned shall notify at the time of signature or when depositing its instruments of ratification, acceptance or accession;

c. also persons who are nationals of a State Party which does not require obligatory military service shall be considered as having satisfied their military obligations when they have enlisted voluntarily in the military forces of that Party for a total and effective period which is at least equal to that of the active military service of the State Party or States Parties of which they are also nationals without regard to where they have their habitual residence.

Exercise 13: Translate the text into English using the vocabulary and information from the text of the European Convention on Nationality and Federal Law № 62-FZ of May 31, 2002 on Citizenship of the Russian Federation [49].

Население. Понятие население и гражданства [50]

Под населением чаще всего понимают совокупность индивидов, проживающих в данный момент на территории того или иного государства.

Население любого государства состоит из следующих категорий: граждан данного государства, иностранцев (так называемых обычных иностранцев, т.е. не пользующихся иммунитетами и привилегиями), лиц без гражданства, лиц имеющих двойное гражданство.

Гражданство – это устойчивая правовая связь физического лица с государством, выражающаяся в совокупности их взаимных прав и обязанностей. Иногда гражданство называют принадлежностью лица к государству. Гражданство – устойчивая правовая связь, поскольку даже в случае выезда гражданина за границу его гражданство автоматически, как правило, не прекращается.

В законодательстве некоторых государств существуют различные термины для обозначения принадлежности физических лиц к государству. В странах с республиканской формой правления обычно употребляется термин «гражданство», в странах с монархической формой правления все еще встречается термин «подданство». В американском, британском, а также в законодательстве некоторых других государств существует множественность терминов, обозначающих принадлежность лица к государству.

Например, наряду с терминами «citizen» (гражданин) и «subject» (подданный) в англо-американской теории и практике широко распространен также термин «national», который может быть переведен как «лицо, обладающее определенной национальной принадлежностью» (в юридическом смысле).

Гражданство регулируется внутренним законодательством государства. Возможно отсутствие закона о гражданстве в каком-либо государстве. Но дело не в формальном законодательном регулировании гражданства. Гражданство – понятие, неразрывно связанное с государственностью. Отсутствие закона о гражданстве не означает отсутствия самого гражданства, хотя и может осложнить ведение внешних сношений. Так или иначе, регламентация гражданства – внутренний вопрос, сфера внутренней компетенции государства. Условия приобретения и утраты гражданства устанавливаются внутренним законодательством государства. Поскольку каждое государство в данной области действует самостоятельно, неизбежны столкновения (коллизии) законов о гражданстве различных государств. Такие коллизии могут быть источником трений и конфликтов международного характера. Для их ликвидации или предотвращения государства часто прибегают к заключению международных договоров, то есть вырабатывают соответствующие нормы международного права.

Exercise 14: Translate the text into English using your active vocabulary and information from the text of the European Convention on Nationality and Federal Law № 62-FZ of May 31, 2002 on Citizenship of the Russian Federation.

Приобретение и утрата гражданства [51]

Способы приобретения гражданства можно условно разделить на две большие группы. Первая группа охватывает способы приобретения гражданства в общем порядке, вторая – в исключительном порядке. Способы приобретения гражданства в общем порядке являются более или менее стабильными, обычными для законодательства государств. К ним относится приобретение гражданства: а) в результате рождения; б) в результате натурализации (приема в гражданство). К этим способам примыкает редко встречающееся в практике государств пожалование гражданства.

Приобретение гражданства в исключительном порядке включает следующие способы: групповое предоставление гражданства, или коллективная натурализация (частный случай – так называемый трансферт); оптация (выбор гражданства); реинтеграция (восстановление в гражданстве).

Приобретение гражданства в результате рождения – самый обычный способ его приобретения. Законодательство различных государств по этому вопросу основывается на одном из двух принципов: либо на праве крови (jus sanguinis), либо на праве почвы (jus soli). Иногда в доктрине приобретение гражданства по праву крови именуется приобретением гражданства по происхождению, а по праву почвы – по рождению. Право крови означает, что лицо приобретает гражданство родителей независимо от места рождения: право почвы – что лицо приобретает гражданство государства, на территории которого родилось, независимо от гражданства родителей. Большинство государств мира придерживается права крови. Российское законодательство тоже основано преимущественно на праве крови. Как правило, государства, которые в принципе следуют праву крови, в некоторых случаях исходят и из права почвы.

Право почвы свойственно законодательству США и латиноамериканских государств. Однако оно всегда в какой-то степени дополняется правом крови (обычно в отношении детей граждан соответствующих государств, родившихся за границей). Государства стремятся ввести в свое законодательство нормы, ограничивающие возможность приобретения их гражданства лицами, рожденными от смешанных браков. Это диктуется различными соображениями, в частности нежеланием способствовать приобретению своими гражданами еще и иностранного гражданства, то есть двойного гражданства, что может привести к осложнениям в межгосударственных отношениях.

Государства, придерживающиеся права крови, нередко также ограничивают возможность приобретения своего гражданства теми лицами, которые родились за границей от граждан, постоянно там проживающих, особенно если один из родителей является иностранным гражданином. Натурализация (укоренение) – индивидуальный прием в гражданство по просьбе заинтересованного лица. В отечественном законодательстве этот термин не применяется, но в теории международного права он общепризнан. Натурализация – добровольный акт. Принудительная натурализация противоречит международному праву.

Натурализация осуществляется обычно в большинстве государств с учетом определенных условий, предусмотренных в законе. Важнейшие условия – это, как правило, определенный срок проживания на территории данного государства (5, 7, иногда 10 лет). Предусматриваются и другие условия натурализации, например имущественные. Возможность натурализации часто облегчается, если заинтересованное лицо оказало какие-либо услуги данному государству, служило в его вооруженных силах, находилось на его государственной службе и т.д.

Процедура приема в гражданство целиком определяется внутренним законодательством государств. Можно выделить по крайней мере четыре вида процедур натурализации:

1) натурализация, осуществляемая высшими органами государственной власти;

2) натурализация, осуществляемая органами государственного управления: правительством либо, чаще всего, центральными отраслевыми органами государственного управления (обычно ведомствами внутренних дел);

3) натурализация, осуществляемая местными органами государственной власти (встречается крайне редко);

4) судебная натурализация (также встречается редко).

Разновидностью натурализации является предусматриваемый законодательством некоторых государств упрощенный порядок приобретения гражданства определенными категориями лиц путем регистрации (если только речь не идет о подтверждении своего гражданства). К нему относится и автоматическая натурализация несовершеннолетних детей в связи с натурализацией родителей.

Многие государства считают недопустимым автоматическое приобретение женщиной гражданство мужа в результате ее вступления в брак. Эта позиция получила отражение в Конвенции о гражданстве замужней женщины 1957 года.

Пожалование гражданства, в отличие от натурализации, осуществляется по инициативе компетентных властей государства, а не по просьбе заинтересованного лица. Обычно гражданство в порядке пожалования предоставляют за особые заслуги перед государством.

Групповое предоставление гражданства – это наделение гражданством населения какой-либо территории в упрощенном порядке либо предоставление в упрощенном порядке гражданства переселенцам.

Частным случаем группового предоставления гражданства является трансферт – переход населения какой-либо территории из одного гражданства в другое в связи с передачей территории, на которой оно проживает, одним государством другому.

Оптация (выбор гражданства) не всегда выступает в качестве способа приобретения гражданства. Например, возможность оптации предусматривается в конвенциях о двойном гражданстве. Если гражданин какого-либо государства имеет одновременно и иностранное гражданство, то ему может предоставляться право оптировать одно из них, отказавшись тем самым от другого. Гражданства он в этом случае не приобретает, поскольку здесь оптация влечет за собой лишь утрату одного из гражданств.

И наконец, один из способов приобретения гражданства в исключительном порядке – реинтеграция, или восстановление в гражданстве. При определенных обстоятельствах принимаются специальные законодательные акты об особом порядке восстановления в гражданстве. В некоторых странах возможность восстановления гражданства предусмотрена в общем, а не в специальном законодательстве о гражданстве. В этом случае восстановление в гражданстве не выступает как самостоятельный способ приобретения гражданства, а является лишь упрощенной натурализацией.

Что касается утраты гражданства, то можно выделить три ее формы: автоматическую утрату гражданства; выход из гражданства; лишение гражданства.

Автоматическая утрата гражданства в отечественной практике встречается лишь в международных соглашениях и в специальных законодательных актах, в то время как в США это самая типичная форма утраты гражданства. В США существует так называемая доктрина свободы экспатриации. Если какое-либо лицо, имеющее американское гражданство, натурализовалось за рубежом, оно автоматически утрачивает американское гражданство. В законодательстве США установлены и другие основания автоматической утраты гражданства (например, в случае участия американского гражданина в выборах в иностранном государстве).

Выход из гражданства – это утрата гражданства на основании решения компетентных органов государства, выносимого по просьбе заинтересованного лица. Данная форма характерна, в частности, для российского законодательства.

Лишение гражданства содержит в себе элемент наказания. В отличие от выхода из гражданства, оно осуществляется по инициативе государственных органов и, как правило, в отношении лиц, замешанных во враждебной данному государству деятельности.

Лишение гражданства может осуществляться: при определенных условиях, предусмотренных общим законодательством (например, в случае натурализации обменным путем); на основании специального акта, касающегося конкретного лица или лиц определенной категории. Российское законодательство возможности лишения гражданства не предусматривает.

Exercise 15: Complete the following passage, using suitable forms of the words below.

Nationality jurisdiction [52]

It is clear that international law 1)…….... (but does not require) a state to exercise jurisdiction over its nationals, 2)………. they may be when the offence or civil wrong is committed. A national is entitled to the diplomatic protection of his or her state at all times and, as a 3)………., he or she is subject to its civil and criminal jurisdiction. Necessarily, the jurisdiction will not be exercised until the national physically comes within the territory of his or her home state and it may be that the state takes no action because 4)………. has been dealt with by the state in whose territory the events did occur. However, there is a recognized 5)………. right to exercise jurisdiction on the basis of nationality, and this is now exercised by the UK in respect of offences of a serious nature (e.g., 6)………., some sexual offences). Thus, in the Trial of Earl Russell [1901] AC 446, the defendant, a UK national, was convicted of 7)………. even though the second act of marriage took place outside the United Kingdom. This case is also an early (and then rare) example of the subjective 8)………. principle in operation in the United Kingdom.

Legal, the matter, permits, territorial, bigamy, wherever, murder, corollary.

Exercise 16: Make a literary translation of the following text using your active vocabulary and information from the text of the European Convention on Nationality and Federal Law № 62-FZ of May 31, 2002 on Citizenship of the Russian Federation.

Vocabulary notes:

Двойное гражданство – dual citizenship/nationality

Множественное гражданство – multiple nationality, plural citizenship/nationality

Уклоняться от ответственности — to avoid/evade/dodge/shirk the responsibility

Освобождаться от – to clear

Бипатрид – person having dual citizenship/nationality

Двойное гражданство [53]

Двойное гражданство – это наличие у лица гражданства двух или более государств. Таким образом, этот термин охватывает и множественное гражданство (тройное и т.д.). Двойное гражданство порождается коллизиями законов о гражданстве различных государств (например, основанных на праве почвы и праве крови).

В практике сложилось правило, вытекающее из государственного суверенитета, согласно которому государство, гражданин которого имеет также иностранное гражданство, рассматривает его исключительно как своего гражданина независимо от того, положительно или отрицательно относится это государство к приобретению его гражданином иностранного гражданства.

В ч. 1 ст. 2 Конституции Российской Федерации предусматривается: «Гражданин Российской Федерации может иметь гражданство иностранного государства (двойное гражданство) в соответствии с федеральным законом или международным договором Российской Федерации». Однако граждане России, имеющие также иностранное гражданство, не могут на этом основании быть ограничены в правах, уклоняться от выполнения обязанностей или освобождаться от ответственности, вытекающих из гражданства России.

Российское законодательство не содержит никаких запретов в отношении натурализации российских граждан за границей и не предусматривает ответственности за такую натурализацию. Российский гражданин, натурализовавшийся в иностранном государстве, то есть принявший иностранное гражданство, не оформив выхода из гражданства Российской Федерации, станет лицом с двойным гражданством (бипатридом).

Двойное гражданство имеет определенные отрицательные последствия. Среди них следует выделить: а) последствия, связанные с оказанием дипломатической защиты лицам с двойным гражданством; б) последствия, связанные с военной службой лиц с двойным гражданством.

Exercise 17: Read the text on statelessness and find out

a) who is considered a stateless person

b) why people may become stateless

c) what measures were taken by the United Nations to prevent and reduce statelessness

Statelessness [54]

Statelessness is the legal and social concept of a person lacking belonging (or a legally enforceable claim) to any recognised state. Statelessness is not always the same as lack of citizenship.

De jure statelessness is where there exists no recognised state in respect of which the subject has a legally meritorious basis to claim nationality.

De facto statelessness is where the subject may have a legally meritorious claim but is precluded from asserting it because of practical considerations such as cost, circumstances of civil disorder, or the fear of persecution.

Statelessness most commonly affects refugees although not all refugees are stateless, and not all stateless persons may be able to qualify as refugees. Refugee status entails the extra requirements that the refugee is outside their country of nationality (or country of habitual residence if stateless), and is deserving of asylum based upon a well-founded fear of persecution for categorized reasons which make him/her unwilling or unable to avail the protection of that country.

Stateless person

A stateless person is someone with no citizenship or nationality. It may be because the state that gave their previous nationality has ceased to exist and there is no successor state or their nationality has been repudiated by their own state, effectively making them refugees. People may be stateless also if they are members of a group which is denied citizen status in the country on whose territory they are born, if they are born in disputed territories, if they are born in an area ruled by an entity whose independence is not internationally recognized, or if they are born on territory over which no modern state claims sovereignty.

Individuals may also become stateless voluntarily by renouncing formally their citizenship while on foreign soil; however, not all states recognize such renunciations on the part of their citizens. Often, depending on the specific laws of the countries involved, one may not renounce a citizenship unless one is a dual citizen and can show citizenship in a country other than that of the undesired citizenship. Consulates do not want to deal with the complications associated with statelessness if they can avoid it. However, consular officials are unlikely to be familiar with all citizenship laws of all countries, so there still can be situations where statelessness might arise. For example, children born outside Canada to a Canadian parent or parents are, under certain circumstances, required to establish Canadian residency by age 28 or lose Canadian citizenship. If such a person held dual citizenship and, as a young adult, renounced the second citizenship on the strength of his or her Canadian passport, and then subsequently failed to establish the required Canadian residency, he or she could end up stateless. Statelessness may also arise at birth. For example, an American born abroad that has not spent five years in the US or one of its possessions does not have the right to transfer citizenship (i.e., that person's children will not be US citizens at birth). If that person continues to live abroad (e.g., as a resident alien, not a dual citizen) and then has children with a person with the same status in a country that does not have jus soli, their children will automatically be stateless at birth (Immigration and Nationality Act Sec. 301g). (However, many states have signed the 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness and will grant nationality to otherwise stateless persons born on their territory.)

Some areas, such as the West Bank which is under a military occupation by a country which does not issue passports to its residents, are home to stateless persons. In some cases, such as that of ethnic Russians in Latvia, conditions for citizenship may be problematic or difficult to satisfy. In some enclave areas, such as parts of Sudan and Afghanistan, people may have no practical contact with a potentially passport-issuing state which nominally claims sovereignty over them.

While stateless persons were more common before the 20th century, when many states were somewhat fragile entities, on September 20, 1954 the United Nations adopted the Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons: an active policy to prevent people becoming or remaining stateless. States which have ratified the Convention are bound to give stateless persons rights similar to those granted aliens of comparable status. Despite this, there are still Kurdish, Palestinian, Sahrawi and Tibetan refugees who claim asylum due to statelessness, for example.

Principle 3 of the 1959 Declaration of the Rights of the Child asserts that:

"The child shall be entitled from his birth to a name and a nationality."

States bound by the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child are obligated to implement policies and programs to ensure that children's families and national authorities can secure citizenship for every child in the country.

In practice, when a child’s birth is not registered that child’s existence may not be acknowledged and the child may be denied citizenship. Some governing bodies refuse to recognize births — and therefore the existence and the nationality of some children - because of race, ethnicity, or questions of "legitimacy."

Characteristics of statelessness affect Amerasian children and young adults in Southeast Asia. They are commonly fathered abroad by US servicemen and mothers of Asian nationalities.

An attempt to reduce discrimination against women is made in the 1957 Convention on the Nationality of Married Women with its provisions to prevent the automatic acquisition of the husband's citizenship. It also intends to prevent women losing citizenship and becoming stateless if they marry a stateless man.

Exercise 18: Decide if the following statements are true or false according to the reading. If they are false, rewrite the statements on a separate piece of paper to make them true.

1) All refugees are stateless.

2) All stateless persons may be able to qualify as refugees.

3) All states recognize renunciations on the part of their citizens if individuals voluntarily renounce formally their citizenship while on foreign soil.

4) The United Nations adopted the Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons on September 20, 1946.

5) States which have ratified the Convention are not bound to give stateless persons rights similar to those granted aliens of comparable status.

6) The child shall be entitled from his birth to a name and a nationality.

7) States bound by the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child are not obligated to implement policies and programs to ensure that children's families and national authorities can secure citizenship for every child in the country.

8) If the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child had not been adopted, the states would not have been obligated to implement policies and programs to ensure that children's families and national authorities could secure citizenship for every child in the country.

Exercise 19: Read the following text on the concept of statelessness and make a summary of it in English using vocabulary from the above text on statelessness and from the Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness.

Безгражданство [55]

Это – правовое состояние, которое характеризуется отсутствием у лица гражданства какого-либо государства. Безгражданство может быть абсолютным и относительным.

Абсолютное Безгражданство – безгражданство с момента рождения. Относительное безгражданство – безгражданство, наступившее в результате утраты гражданства. Безгражданство представляет собой правовую аномалию. Государства борются с ним, стремясь его ограничить.

Лица без гражданства (апатриды) не должны быть бесправными. В принципе их правовое положение определяется внутренним законодательством государства, на территории которого они проживают. Все государства обязаны уважать основные права человека и в соответствии с этим обеспечить для лиц без гражданства соответствующий режим. В каждом государстве он, однако, имеет свои особенности. В России статус лиц без гражданства по существу приравнивается к статусу иностранцев, за исключением одного момента: иностранное дипломатическое представительство не в праве оказывать им защиту. Как и иностранцы, они не несут воинской обязанности и не обладают избирательными правами, на них не распространяются те же профессиональные ограничения, что и на иностранцев.

Exercise 20: Examine the phenomenon of citizenship by answering the following questions.

1. What is ‘nationality’ in international law?

2. What does it serve to?

3. On what basis do states have a right to exercise diplomatic protection of their own nationals?

4. Does nationality imply any specific obligations of citizens towards the national state?

5. All states have the right to define who their nationals are and who are not, haven’t they?

6. Is nationality governed by the principles of international law?

7. What are the two basic ways of acquiring nationality?

8. What do the terms ‘jus sanguinis’ and ‘jus soli’ mean?

9. Do children born to foreigners exercising official duties on behalf of their government acquire nationality of the state where their parents exercise their duties?

10. Does the principle of ‘jus soli’ apply to birth on ships or aircrafts?

11. What does ‘naturalization’ mean?

12. What is ‘naturalization’ based on?

13. What are the terms of acquiring nationality by naturalization?

14. Does a wife acquire the nationality of her husband automatically?

15. Are there any official documents on the nationality of married women?

16. Do minors acquire the nationality of their adoptive parents?

17. In what cases can nationality be lost?

18. Is dual citizenship possible under international law?

19. What cases presuppose diplomatic protection of nationals by their states?

20. Do all states have the duty to protect their nationals or is it a question at the discretion of each state?

References for further reading:

1. FEDERAL LAW NO. 62-FZ OF MAY 31, 2002 ON RUSSIAN FEDERATION CITIZENSHIP (with the Amendments and Additions of November 11, 2003, November 2, 2004). Adopted by the State Duma April 19, 2002. Approved by the Federation Council May 15, 2002 [Электронный ресурс].– Режим доступа:

http://www.legislationline.org/documents/action/popup/id/4189

2. Amnesty International Report

Nationality, Expulsion, Statelessness and the Right to Return. – [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3b83b6df7.html

(Amnesty International in its report titled "Bhutan: Nationality, Expulsion, Statelessness and the Right to Return” (AI INDEX: ASA 14/001/2000 dated 01/09/2000) has elaborately described the issue of nationality, expulsion, statelessness of Bhutanese citizens.)

3. Convention on Certain Questions relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws

(The Hague, 12 April 1930) [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.coe.int/t/e/legal_affairs/legal_co-operation/foreigners_and_citizens/nationality/documents/legal_instruments/Conv%20conflict%20nationality%20The%20Hague%2004_1930.pdf

(Entry into force generally: 1 July 1937

Entry into force for Australia: 8 February 1938;)

4. Convention on the Nationality of Married Women. – [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа:

http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3708.html

(entered into force Aug. 11, 1958.)

5. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, G.A. res. 34/180, 34 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 46) at 193, U.N. Doc. A/34/46, entered into force Sept. 3, 1981. – [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/

(Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly resolution 34/180 of18 December 1979, entry into force 3 September 1981, in accordance with article 27(1)

6. Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness 1961. [Электронный ресурс]. –Режим доступа:

http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/6_1_1961/.pdf

7. Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. – [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/protocolrefugees.htm.

(The Protocol was taken note of with approval by the Economic and Social Council in resolution 1186 (XLI) of 18 November 1966 and was taken note of by the General Assembly in resolution 2198 (XXI) of 16 December 1966.

---

Дата добавления: 2015-11-14