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Mood is a grammatical category of the verb that shows the relation of the action denoted by the predicate-verb to reality from the speaker's point of view.
It is believed that English verbs have three moods: (1) The indicative mood; (2) The imperative mood, (3) The subjunctive mood.
The indicative mood [22] represents an action as a fact of reality. It is used for statements and questions. E.g.:
The sun rises in the East.
I don't know her address.
What is your name?
The imperative mood is used to express requests and orders. E.g.:
Come up here, please!
Stop talking!
The subjunctive mood is used to express unreal or hypothetical actions or states. It shows something formed in the mind of the speaker as contradicting reality, as a supposition, desire, volition, possibility, necessity, imagination, etc. E.g.:
I wish it were summer now! If it were summer, we should have a swim in the river.
She looked at me as if I were a strang er.
Classification of the subjunctive mood forms
The subjunctive mood forms in English may be classified into the following types':
THE SYNTHETIC FORMS
The subjunctive I
This form coincides with the plain verb stem for all persons and is used in set-phrases to express wish. E.g.:
Long live peace;
Suffice it to say that...
Far beit from me (to do something).
This form is also used mostly in American English (A.E.) in subject, predicative, object and attributive appositive[23] clauses to express order, necessity, obligation, request, command, recommendation, etc. In British English (B.E.) should + infinitive is rather preferred in such cases. E.g:
I advise that you participate in this programme (B.E.: should participate).
The subjunctive II
This form coincides with the forms of the past indefinite (past continuous) or the past perfect (past perfect continuos) tenses and is used to express unreal condition in various types of subordinate clauses. The form of the past indefinite is used to express unreal actions simultaneous with those of the principal clause (example 1) or actions which refer to the present, future or to no particular time (example 2).
The form of the past perfect is used to express actions prior to those of the principal clause (example 3) or actions which refer to the past (example 4). E.g.:
(1) It's time they arrived (but they haven't arrived yet);
(2) If I were you, I would go there tonight;
(3) I wish I had bought that book yesterday (but I did not and now I regret it);
(4) If it had not been cold yesterday, we would have gone to the beach.
To express unreality the verb be. in the past indefinite tense is used for both singular and plural subjects in the form were (i.e.: If I were you...; If he were here now..., etc.). Was (with /, he, she. it) is sometimes used in less formal speech but is not generally considered grammatically acceptable, thought such usage becomes more and more frequent even in the literary standard of the "World Englishes".
THE ANALYTICAL FORMS
The conditional mood
The conditional mood has the following structure:
| Combinations of mood would (should)[24] and indefinite infinitive/ auxiliaries perfect infinitive |
The form is used to express unreal actions in simple and complex sentences. Combinations of would (should) and the indefinite infinitive have reference to the present or future (or to no particular time).
E.g. If I were free now, I would stay with you.
Combinations of would (should) and the perfect infinitive have reference to the past (the so called "rejected past"). E.g.:
If John had heard about your marriage, he would have come to your wedding party. (You had a wedding party last month hut you didn't inform John so he didn't come).
The suppositional mood
The suppositional mood has the following structure:
| Combination of mood should and indefinite infinitive auxiliary (for all persons) |
This form is used to express problematic condition in the adverbial clauses of condition with reference to the future and suggests that the condition is unlikely to be met (i.e. it has a strong modal meaning). In principal clauses either will with indefinite infinitive or the imperative mood are used. E.g.:
If you should be in Kyiv again, I will be happy to see you.
If you should see Harry, give him our love.
These conditional structures can take inversion of subject and predicate and omit if. The resulting structures are pretty formal:
Should you be in Kyiv again, I will be happy to see you.
Should you see Harry, give him our love.
The suppositional mood is also used in subject, predicative, object and attributive appositive clauses to express order, necessity, obligation, request, recommendation, command, etc. (mostly in B.E.). E.g.:
It is important that the students should be informed about the conference.
Modal verbs
Modal verbs could and might followed by the appropriate infinitive may also be used to express unreality in certain syntactic patterns if the context so requires. E.g.: I wish I could g o round the world in a boat. If you had been more polite, he might have agreed to what you proposed.
Tendency to use contracted forms of mood auxiliaries
There is a tendency in Modern spoken English to use contracted forms of mood auxiliaries with the aim of speech economy. Thus, the form I’d may be a substitute for would, should, could and had and create, therefore problems for understanding by foreign listeners. Often the context of the message helps to "unpack" the meaning. E.g.:
If I'd been (had been ) in London last weekend, I'd have gone (would have gone ) to Anna's party.
There is also an obvious tendency to use the contracted form of the auxiliary have.
E.g.: If I'd seen this book in the shops, I would've bought it for you.
BASIC PATTERNS WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD IN SIMPLE SENTENCES
The conditional mood
may be used to express unreal actions even if unreal condition is not expressed by an (if-clause but is clear from the context (implied unreal condition).
E.g.: He would have said a great deal more. But he was tired and kept silence (The implied condition is: " If he had not been tired, he would have said a great deal more").
The same may be expressed in a different way:
He was tired. Otherwise (or) he would have said a great deal more.
Unreal condition
may be expressed by a special adverbial modifier:
| but for something somebody | would should could might | do/have done something |
E.g.: But for the weather, they would go skating.
Unreal condition
may be expressed by an infinitive phrase functioning as the subject of the sentence:
| to do/to have done something | would could might | do/have done something. |
E.g.: Surely we won't invite her. To invite her would mean to spoil the weekend.
The following phrases have ceased to express unreality.
They give the utterance a milder and more polite meaning:
| somebody | had better had/would rather would sooner | do something |
E.g.:
It's too late. You' d better take a taxi.
It's none of my business, I' d rather not interfere.
6.5. The subjunctive II may be used to express wish or regret in simple sentences:
| If only Oh, that Oh, if | somebody did/ had done something |
E.g.:
If only I knew English grammar better!
Oh, that I were young again!
Oh, if I had known the truth at that time!
BASIC PATTERNS WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD IN COMPLEX SENTENCES
Subject Clauses
7.1.1. It is strange (funny, sad, etc.) that he should know it.
(In such sentences it is possible to use the indicative mood which is less formal. E.g.: It is strange that he knows it.)
7.1.2. It is necessary (ordered, proposed, required, etc.) that he should go there[25] (A.E.:... that he go there).
7.1.3. It's time (high time) he were here.
Predicative clauses
7.2.1. His suggestion is that we should go there (A. E.:... that we go. there.)
7.2.2. Our fear is lest he should misunderstand us. (The indicative mood is used in this pattern in less formal style after the conjunction that: Our fear is that he will/may misunderstand us. Compare with pattern 7.3.4.).
7.2.3. He looks as if he were ill (now). He looks as if he had been ill (some time before).
Object clauses
7.3.1. I wish she were in Kyiv (now) (the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the action of the principal clause)
I wish she had been in Kyiv (some time before) (the action of the subordinate clause is prior to the action of the principal clause).
7.3.2.1 wish you would keep quiet (this pattern expresses volition and refers to the future),
7.3.3. He suggests that they should go there (A.E.:... that they go_there.)
7.3.4.I am afraid lest he should misunderstand us. (The indicative mood is used in this pattern in lees formal style after the conjunction that: I am afraid that he will/may misunderstand us. Compare with pattern 7.2.2).
Attributive appositive clauses
7.4. 1. He made a suggestion that we should g o there (A.E.; that we go there).
Adverbial clauses of unreal condition
7.5.1. If I were you, I would read this book in the original (this pattern refers to the present, future, or to no particular time).
7.5.2. If I had been in London last January, I would have visited my friend (this pattern refers to the "rejected past").
7.5.3. If you hadn't gone out into the street yesterday, you wouldn't be ill now (this pattern has a mixed time reference: unreal condition refers to the past and unreal result to the present),
7.5.4. If you were more careful, you would not have got into trouble (this pattern has a mixed time reference: unreal condition refers to the present or to no particular time while unreal result refers to the past).
7.5.5. If I were to speak to her, I should/would tell her the truth (this emphatic pattern refers to the future).
7.5.6. If he should come, he will ring you up. Should he come, tell him to ring me up. (Both patterns express problematic condition and refer to the future).
Adverbial clauses of concession
7.6.1. They would not come even if we warned them (this pattern refers to the present or future).
7.6.2. They would not have come even if we had warned them (this pattern refers to the past).
7.6.3. He will not succeed however hard he should try.
(The indicative mood is used in this pattern in less formal style: He will not succeed however hard he will/may try).
Adverbial clauses of purpose
7.7.1. (In negative clauses only) He came early so that we should not worry. (In affirmative clauses the indicative mood is used: He will come early so that we will/may/can discuss the matter with him).
Adverbial clauses of comparison and manner
7.8.1. She speaks English so well as if she were a native' (the action of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the action of the principal clause)
She is so pale as if she had been ill for some time (the action of the subordinate clause is prior to the action of the principal clause)[26].
Subjunctive Mood Synopsis
1. To express wish or hope, very often involving supernatural powers.
God bless you!
Come what may!
God save the Queen!
If need be, …
2. The structure that … should.
the verbs followed by the said construction: advise, agree, arrange, ask, beg, command, decide, demand, determine, insist, order, propose, recommend, request, stipulate, suggest, urge, be anxious, be determined
She advised that we (should) keep the gate locked. (she was unlikely to be there – less direct contact)
She advised that the gate should be kept locked.
Instead of
She advised keeping the gate locked. (she was likely to be there)
She advised us to keep it locked.
She arrange d for me to go abroad.
Should is sometimes omitted before be
3. The structure it is/was + adjective + that … should
After it is/was advisable, better, desirable, essential, imperative, important, natural, necessary, reasonable.
After it is only fair/just/right
It is essential that he should go.
Instead of it is/was + adjective +for smb to do
It is essential for him to go.
4. The structure it is/was + adjective + that … should
After it is/was absurd, amazing, annoying, ludicrous, odd, ridiculous, strange, surprising
Instead if that + present or past tense
It is ridiculous that we should be short of water.
It is amazing that she should have said nothing.
5. After lest [1] and sometimes after in case in the structure lest … should.
He was terrified lest he should slip on the icy rocks.
She began to be worried lest he should have met with some accident. (earlier)
6. in purpose clauses
He wore a mask so that no one should recognize him.
7. In conditional sentences instead of the present tense
If the pain should return take another of these pills.
8. as if/as though + past subjunctive
He bosses me around as if I were his wife.
He talks about Rome as though he had been there himself.
9. It is time + past subjunctive (unreal past)
It is time to start.
It is time for us to go. (We are a little late.)
It is time we went./It is time we were leaving/I was leaving (not were).
10. Conditionals.
If I had a map I would lend it to you.
If I were to succeed/If I succeeded
11. would rather [1] /sooner
Tom would rather read than speak. (Tom prefers reading to talking)
We went by sea, but I’d rather have gone by air. I’d prefer to have gone by air.
I’d rather you paid. (different subjects)
Ann wants to tell Tom, but I’d rather she didn’t (tell him).
Had better
You had better ring him at once. (This would be a good thing to do)
You had better not miss the last bus. (It would be unwise)
In indirect speech remains unchanged.
I wish
I wish I knew his address.
He wished he knew the address. (not changed in indirect speech)
I wish(ed) I hadn’t spent so much money. (will be reported unchanged)
If only we knew where she is! (more dramatic)
If only she had asked someone’s advice!
VOCABULARY OF SOME LINGUISTIC TERMS USED IN THE TEXT
| antecedent | антецедент (іменник чи його еквівалент, до якого відноситься означення) |
| apposition | прикладка (вид означення) |
| Clause | частина складного речення |
| principal clause | головна частина складного речення |
| subordinate clause | підрядна частина складного речення |
| cognate object | додаток-іменник, утворений від одного кореня з дієсловом |
| communicative | комунікативний, той, що стосується комунікації |
| co-ordination | сурядність, сурядний зв'язок у синтаксисі |
| elliptical sentence | еліптичне (неповне) речення |
| explicit | явно виражений, експліцитний. |
| hierarchy | ієрархія (рівневий принцип побудови системи) |
| homogeneous | однорідний |
| homogeneous parts of the sentence | однорідні члени речення |
| implicit | явно не виражений |
| pragmatics | прагмалінгвістика, лінгвістична прагматика (галузь мовознавства, що вивчає комунікативні аспекти мови) |
| predication | предикація (відношення змісту висловлювання до дійсності, яке виражається у реченні повідомленням чого-небудь про що-небудь) |
| predicativity | предикативність (визначення граматичними засобами відношення змісту висловлювання до дійсності) |
| predicative | 1. предикатив; іменна частина складного іменного присудка 2. предикативний (той, що відноситься до предикації) |
| reference | відношення, зв'язок, референція |
| structural | структурний |
| structural level | структурний рівень (системи). |
| subordination | підрядність, підрядний зв'язок у синтаксисі |
The Infinitive
Syntactical Functions of the Infinitive
The Subject
| To do smth | is (was, will be) would be means (meant) | necessary impossible a mistake to do smth |
E.g. To tell her the truth under the circumstances is not at all necessary.
| It | is was will be | necessary important interesting easy difficult strange simple nice | to do smth to be done to be doing smth |
E.g. It is necessary to go and explain it to her.
The Predicative
| The Subject of the sentence | is was will be | to do smth to be done |
E.g. What I want is to be left alone.
The infinitive may be part of a compound verbal predicate.
E.g. Could you tell me the time?
The Object
| To promise offer remember forget agree decide pretend want mean | to do smth to be doing smth to be done |
E.g. She didn’t want to be seen in such company.
| To be glad to be pleased to be astonished to be angry to be delighted to be afraid | to do smth to be doing smth to have done smth to have been doing smth to be done to have been done |
E.g. They were astonished to have found me there.
The Attribute
| The first the last the second | to do smth |
E.g. Who was the last to speak to him?
| Somebody nobody anything someone | to do smth |
E.g. I have nothing to tell you.
There was nobody there to show him how to do it.
| Man place time thing | to do smth |
E.g. It is not the right time to discuss this subject.
The passive infinitive is seldom used in the attributive function; the correct way is to say “ it is a book to read ” and not “ to be read ”.
Exceptions: there is nothing to be done and nothing to do; there is something to be seen, to be said and something to see, to say.
The attributive passive infinitive may have a future meaning: The houses to be built there will be of the same type.
The Adverbial Modifier of Purpose
| To do smth | (in order / so as) | to get smth to be given smth |
E.g. I have come here to speak to you.
She pretended to be quite well so as not to be taken to the doctor.
The Adverbial Modifier of Result.
| (too) | young old easy difficult | (enough) | to do smth to be done to have done to have been done |
E.g. You are too young to wear black.
That girl is stupid enough to have believed every word he says.
The Secondary Predicative
| Smb. Smth. | is was | nice hard difficult pleasant impossible | to do (at, with) |
E.g. She is nice to work with.
Infinitive without Particle to (Bare Infinitive)
Bare infinitive is used:
| Rules | Examples |
| After auxiliaries and modal verbs except ought, have, be. | Do you know what time is it now? You must come and see us one day. You ought to have come earlier. |
| After the verbs denoting sense perception such as to hear, to see, to feel, to watch, to observe, to notice, etc in the active voice. | I saw him enter the shop. But: He was seen to enter the shop. |
| After the verbs to let, to make, to have (in the meaning to get), to know (in the meaning to see / to observe) in the active voice. | Don’t let the children annoy you. She made me do this test again. I’ll have an electrician repair it. But: I was made to stand in the corner. |
| After modal expressions had better, cannot but[27], would rather, nothing but[28], would sooner, cannot choose but[29]. | I’d rather betold the truth. You’d better not makea mistake next time. He couldn’t but go there. |
| In infinitive sentences beginning with why (not). | Why not cook fish tonight? You look tired. Why not take a holiday? |
| We use both bare infinitive and to-infinitive forms after the verbs need, dare, do and help. (Bare infinitive is preferable after positive forms and needn’t. To-infinitive after doesn’t / don’t need, dare not and help not). | You needn’t do this washing up. You don’t need to clean the floor. Does she dare (to) refuse you? All I did was (to) give him the information. How can I help my children not to worry about their exams? |
Omitted “to”
| We can join ideas with and, except, but and or. The particle “to” is usually dropped before the second infinitive. She wanted to go and see the film. He wanted to do everything except study. Note: When two infinitives are joined by and, the second is almost always a bare infinitive. When they are joined by but or or, a to-infinitive is possible, but a bare infinitive is more common. |
Reduced Infinitive
| Sometimes the whole infinitive needs not to be repeated if it is understood from the context: A: Can you and Mary come to lunch next Sunday? B: I’d love to. A: Can I smoke in here? B: No, you aren’t allowed to. A: Why aren’t you coming to the film? B: I don’t want to. |
Complexes with the Infinitive
The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction
This construction consists of a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case and the infinitive (mostly Indefinite or Passive). It is always an object in the sentence.
| To see to hear to feel to watch (or any lexical equivalent of the verb of sense perception) | smb. do smth. |
| to let to make to have to get | smb. do smth. |
| to order to allow to forbid | smb. to do smth. smth. to be done |
| to like to prefer to want to know to like to expect (or any lexical equivalent of the verb of mental activity, wish or intention) | smb. to do smth |
E.g. I believe it to have been a mistake.
They reported the enemy to be ten miles away.
I want you to come along with us.
I hate you to be troubled.
I saw him get on the bus this morning.
What makes you think it was me?
Let him sit here if he wants.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction
The construction consists of a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case and any of the six forms of the infinitive. The construction is considered to be the subject of the sentence.
| smb | is was will be | seen heard expected told ordered asked allowed | to do smth to be done | ||
| smb | is was will be | known supposed believed considered | to do smth to be done to be doing smth to have done smth to have been done to have been doing smth | ||
| smb | is was will be | sure certain bound (not) likely | to do smth to be done to be doing smth to have done smth to have been done to have been doing smth | ||
| smb | seems, seemed, will seem appears, appeared, will appear happens, happened, will happen proved, will prove turned out, will turn out | to do smth to be done to be doing smth to have done smth to have been done to have been doing smth | |||
E.g. She was heard to laugh heartily.
He is supposed to have left.
He is said to be a good doctor.
He seems to notice nothing unusual.
The girl appeared to be everybody’s attention.
He is sure to come.
He was not likely to have made a mistake.
The for-to-Infinitive Construction
This construction consists of three elements: the preposition for, a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case and an infinitive, mostly in its Indefinite, Passive or Continuous form. The construction has different syntactical functions in the sentence.
The Subject
| It | is was will be would be | hard easy good bad important impossible not | for smb for smth | to do smth to be doing smth to be done |
E.g. It will be best for her to go back home.
It’s easier for me to go out and buy new pair.
It’s silly for you to be asking me questions.
It is not for me to say so.
| It | is was will be | nice kind sensible silly stupid tactless | of smb | to do smth |
E.g. It was silly of you to ask that question.
It is kind of you to say so.
It will be very sensible of you to go there at once.
The Object
| to long to wait to arrange to mean to be anxious | for smb | to do smth | ||||
| to make to think to believe | it | difficult easy necessary important best | for smb | to do smth | ||
E.g. I’m anxious for you to succeed.
I have arranged for you to have a private room.
He did not mean for you to stay here.
Your attitude made it difficult for him to tell you the truth.
He thinks it best for you to stay here.
The Attribute
| somebody nothing anyone | for smb | to do smth |
| man thing time place | for smb | to do smth |
E.g. There is no one for the children to play with.
There is nothing for me to say.
It is not the right time for us to speak about it.
It was the only thing for me to do.
The Adverbial Modifier of Purpose
| to do smth | for smb | to do smth |
E.g. He stood aside for us to pass in.
I left the notice on the table for everybody to see.
The Adverbial Modifier of Result
| (too) | easy difficult young old | (enough) | for smb | to do smth |
E.g. The rain can last long enough for us to miss the train.
The day was much too cold and rainy for anyone to have a good time.
The water is warm enough for the children to bathe.
The Gerund
The Gerund is a non-finite form of the verb that has both noun and verb characteristics. Its noun characteristics are the following:
Its verb characteristics are the following:
Objective verbs have four forms of the Gerund:
| Indefinite | Passive |
| writing | being written |
| Perfect | Perfect Passive |
| having written | having been written |
Subjective verbs have only two forms of the Gerund:
| Indefinite | Passive |
| standing | - |
| Perfect | Perfect Passive |
| having stood | - |
The Gerund can be easily confused with the verbal noun. In some cases it is impossible to tell whether you are dealing with a gerund or with a verbal noun and consequently impossible to translate the sentence with any degree of exactness. In most cases we can distinguish between the gerund and the verbal noun in the following way:
The gerund:
The verbal noun:
The Functions of the Gerund in the Sentence
The Gerund can be:
The Subject
| It | is was | no use useless no good | doing smth | ||
| There | is was | no doing smth | |||
| Doing smth | does smth did smth will do smth would do smth | ||||
e.g. It’s no use arguing.
It was no good objecting.
Talking mends no holes.
There is no hiding these facts.
There was no going back.
The Predicative
| The main thing Smb’s wish Smb’s job Smb’s duty | is / was doing smth |
| to feel like (up to) to be for / against | doing smth |
e.g. The main thing is getting there in time.
Her job was looking after the children.
I don’t feel like going to the theatre.
Are you for or against staying there?
Also:
a) part of a compound verbal modal predicate with verbs and verbal phrases expressing modality: intend, expect, want, like, feel like, detest, dislike, can’t help, can’t bear / stand, etc. (She intends going there in summer. He couldn’t help admiring the picture.)
b) part of a compound verbal aspect predicate with verbs denoting the beginning, the duration, or the end of the action such as begin, start, go on, keep on, cease, finish, quit, commence, stop, give up, carry on, proceed, resume, continue, etc. (In the night it started raining. He resumed walking. He kept on looking behind.)
The Direct Object
| admit anticipate avoid consider delay deny enjoy escape excuse fancy (imagine) forgive involve mind postpone prevent regret remember resent resist risk suggest, etc. to be worth | doing smth |
| e.g. The film is worth seeing. He admitted taking the money. Sometimes I enjoy being alone. |
The Prepositional Object
| to think of to suspect smb of to accuse of to be afraid of to object to to be used to to succeed in to be engaged in to insist on to depend on to apologize for to be grateful for to be responsible for to thank smb for to blame smb for to be clever at to prevent smb from, etc. | doing smth being done having done smth having been done |
e.g. He apologized for coming late.
She insisted on being treated like a grown woman.
I hope you don’t object to our singing.
We are engaged in discussing this problem.
The Attribute
| intention plan idea point sense purpose habit good harm mistake difficulty way opportunity advantage / disadvantage cause | of doing smth | ||
| There is no (little) Smb sees no (little) | sense harm difficulty point danger | in doing smth | |
e.g. She had no intention of staying.
I don’t like his habit of making people wait.
There is no harm in asking her again.
There is little point in refusing.
The Adverbial Modifier
| on (upon) after before by through because of without in spite of despite instead of at | doing smth |
e.g. She locked the door before going to bed.
He left without saying good-bye.
Before going to the station I had to telephone my office on business.
In spite of being ill, he came to the final discussion.
She frightened her father by bursting into tears.
The Gerundial Complex
The Gerund can have a subject of its own different from that of the sentence. In this case the Gerund and its subject form a construction called the Gerundial Complex. The relations between the elements of the complex are predicative. The first element of the complex may be expressed in a number of ways: by a noun in the common case, a noun in the possessive case, a pronoun in the objective case, a possessive pronoun.
| boy’s boy my me | doing smth being done |
The Gerundial complex has practically the same syntactical functions as the gerund.
Syntactical Functions of the Gerundial Complex
The Subject
| It | is was | no use useless no good | Smb’s doing smth | ||
| Smb’s doing smth | does smth did smth will do smth would do smth | ||||
e.g. It is useless your going there immediately.
His saying this made all the difference.
His being a foreigner and an ex-enemy was bad enough.
The Predicative
| to be for / against | smb’s doing smth |
e.g. I’m against your going there alone.
He was for your staying there for two more days.
The Direct Object
| admit anticipate avoid consider delay deny enjoy escape excuse fancy (imagine) forgive involve mind postpone prevent regret remember resent resist risk suggest, etc. to be worth | smb’s doing smth |
e.g. Do you mind my closing the window?
I don’t like his coming late.
The Prepositional Object
| to think of to suspect smb of to accuse of to be afraid of to object to to be used to to succeed in to be engaged in to insist on to depend on to apologize for to be grateful for to be responsible for to thank smb for to blame smb for to be clever at to prevent smb from, etc. | smb’s doing smth |
e.g. Much depends on your taking the job.
The teacher insisted on my coming in time.
She apologized for her being late.
The Attribute
| intention plan idea point sense purpose habit good harm mistake difficulty way opportunity advantage / disadvantage cause | of smb’s doing smth | ||
| There is no (little) Smb sees no (little) | sense harm difficulty point danger | in smb’s doing smth | |
e.g. I had no idea of your being there.
There is little sense in your staying here just now.
The Adverbial Modifier
| on (upon) after before by through because of without in spite of despite instead of at | smb’s doing smth |
e.g. All that was after their leaving the place.
They waited in spite of our being late for an hour or so.
Participle
The Participle is a non-finite form which has certain verbal features and the syntactical functions of adjectival and adverbial character.
There are two participles in English – Participle I and Participle II. They are also called the present and the past participles though they differ in voice rather than in tense.
Objective verbs have four forms of Participle I:
| Indefinite active | Indefinite passive |
| writing | being written |
| Perfect active | Perfect passive |
| having written | having been written |
Subjective verbs have only two forms of Participle I:
| Indefinite active | Indefinite passive |
| standing | - |
| Perfect active | Perfect passive |
| having stood | - |
Participle II has only one form: written.
Most subjective verbs have no forms of Participle II outside the analytical forms of the verb. (Such participles as died, risen, walked can not be used predicatively or attributively, they only help to form the analytical forms of the verb – have walked, etc.)
The tenses of the participle are relative and show whether the action named by the participle took place at the same time with that of the finite verb or whether it preceded it.
Participle I Indefinite active (or passive) shows that the action named by the participle took place at the same time with that of the finite verb. These forms denote simultaneousness in the present, past or future.
E.g. That day we stayed at home watching TV.
Participle I Perfect active and passive shows that the action named by the participle preceded that of the finite verb. These forms denote priority to a present, past or future action.
E.g. Having said what I was obliged to say I want to tell you now how sorry I am.
Participle II in most cases denotes priority.
E.g. She pulled the long forgotten letter out of its hiding place.
Participle II may sometimes have a meaning of simultaneousness.
E.g. The dog carried by a child gave a sharp yelp of protest.
Participle I Indefinite and Perfect may take direct objects.
E.g. Holding the child close to her she seemed to be showing him something.
Having written the last word she looked up interrogatively.
Participles I and II may be modified by adverbs.
E.g. Deeply hurt, she cleared the table silently.
We saw him crossing the street very quickly.
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