Synonymy and antonymy in English. Homonyms and their classifications.

We use the term antonyms to indicate words of the same category of parts of speech which have contrasting meanings, such as hot - cold, light - dark, happiness - sorrow, to accept - to reject, up - down.

If synonyms form whole, often numerous, groups, antonyms are usually believed to appear in pairs. Yet, this is not quite true in reality. For instance, the adjective cold may be said to have warm for its second antonym, and sorrow may be very well contrasted with gaiety.

On the other hand, a polysemantic word may have an antonym (or several antonyms) for each of its meanings. So, the adjective dull has the antonyms interesting, amusing, entertaining for its meaning of "deficient in interest", clever, bright, capable for its meaning of "deficient in intellect", and active for the meaning of "deficient in activity", etc.

Antonymy is not evenly distributed among the categories of parts of speech. Most antonyms are adjectives which is only natural because qualitative characteristics are easily compared and contrasted: high - low, wide - narrow, strong - weak, old - young, friendly - hostile.

Verbs take second place, so far as antonymy is concerned. Yet, verbal pairs of antonyms are fewer in number. Here are some of them: to lose - to find, to live - to die, to open - to close, to weep - to laugh.

Nouns are not rich in antonyms, but even so some examples can be given: friend - enemy, joy - grief, good - evil, heaven - earth, love - hatred.

Antonymic adverbs can be subdivided into two groups: a) adverbs derived from adjectives: warmly - coldly, merrily - sadly, loudly - softly; b) adverbs proper: now - then, here - there, ever - never, up - down, in - out.

Synonymy is one of modern linguistics' most controversial problems. The very existence of words traditionally called synonyms is disputed by some linguists; the nature and essence of the relationships of these words is hotly debated and treated in quite different ways by the representatives of different linguistic schools.

Even though one may accept that synonyms in the traditional meaning of the term are somewhat elusive and, to some extent, fictitious it is certain that there are words in any vocabulary which clearly develop regular and distinct relationships when used in speech.

Synonyms are one of the language's most important expressive means.

Synonymy is associated with some theoretical problems which at present are still an object of controversy. Probably, the most controversial among these is the problem of criteria of synonymy. To put it in simpler words, we are still not certain which words should correctly be considered as synonyms, nor are we agreed as to the characteristic features which qualify two or more words as synonyms.

Traditional linguistics solved this problem with the conceptual criterion and defined synonyms as words of the same category of parts of speech conveying the same concept but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics.

The only existing classification system for synonyms was established by Academician V. V. Vinogradov, the famous Russian scholar. In his classification system there are three types of synonyms: ideographic (which he defined as words conveying the same concept but differing in shades of meaning), stylistic (differing in stylistic characteristics) and absolute (coinciding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics).

Homonyms are words which have the same form but are different in meaning. "The same form" implies identity in sound form or spelling, i.e. all the three aspects are taken into account: sound-form, graphic form and meaning.

The most widely accepted classification of homonyms is that recognising homonyms proper, homophones and homographs.

Homonyms proper (or perfect, absolute) are words identical in pronunciation аnd spelling but different in meaning, like back n. "part of the body" - back adv. "away from the front" - back v. "go back"; bear n. "animal" - bear v, "carry, tolerate".

Homophones are words of the same sound but of different spelling and meaning: air - heir, buy - by, him - hymn, steel - steal, storey - story.

Homographs are words different in sound and in meaning but accidentally identical in spelling: bow [bou] - bow [bau], lead [li:d] - lead [led].

Homoforms - words identical in some of their grammatical forms. To bound (jump, spring) - bound

(past participle of the verb bind); found (establish) -found (past participle of the verb find).

Paronyms are words that are alike in form, but different in meaning and usage. They are liable to be mixed and sometimes mistakenly interchanged.

The term paronym comes from the Greek para "beside" and onoma "name". Examples are: precede - proceed, preposition - proposition, popular - populous.

Homonyms in English are very numerous. Oxford English Dictionary registers 2540 homonyms, of which 89% are monosyllabic words and 9,1% are two-syllable words.

So, most homonyms are monosyllabic words. The trend towards monosyllabism, greatly increased by the loss of inflections and shortening, must have contributed much toward increasing the number of homonyms in English.

From the viewpoint of their origin homonyms are sometimes divided into historical and etymological.

Historical homonyms are those which result from the breaking up of polysemy; then one polysemantic word will split up into two or more separate words.

Etymologiсal homonyms are words of different origin which come to be alike in sound or in spelling (and may be both written and pronounced alike).

In other cases homonyms are a result of borrowing when several different words become identical in sound or spelling. E.g. the Latin vitim - "wrong", "an immoral habit" has given the English vice - вада "evil conduct".

9. English phraseology: definition, approaches and classifications.

The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words but also by phraseological units. Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. They are compiled in special dictionaries. The same as words phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. American and British lexicographers call such units «idioms». We can mention such dictionaries as: L.Smith «Words and Idioms», V.Collins «A Book of English Idioms» etc. In these dictionaries we can find words, peculiar in their semantics (idiomatic), side by side with word-groups and sentences. In these dictionaries they are arranged, as a rule, into different semantic groups.

Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning.

Phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning. This classification was suggested by acad. V.V. Vinogradov for Russian phraseological units. He pointed out three types of phraseological units:

a) fusions where the degree of motivation is very low, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components, they are highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages, e.g. on Shank’s mare - (on foot), at sixes and sevens - (in a mess) etc;

b) unities where the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical), e.g. to play the first fiddle (to be a leader in something), old salt (experienced sailor) etc;

c) collocations where words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages, e.g. cash and carry - (self-service shop), in a big way (in great degree) etc.

Different approaches to the classification of phraseological units: semantic, functional, contextual. A.V. Coonin’s concept of phraseological units.

A.V. Koonin classified phraseological units according to the way they are formed. He pointed out primary and secondary ways of forming phraseological units.

Primary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word-group:

a) Most productive in Modern English is the formation of phraseological units by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups, e.g. in cosmic technique we can point out the following phrases: «launching pad» in its terminological meaning is «стартовая площадка», in its transferred meaning - «отправной пункт», «to link up» - «cтыковаться, стыковать космические корабли» in its tranformed meaning it means -«знакомиться»;

b) a large group of phraseological units was formed from free word groups by transforming their meaning, e.g. «granny farm» - «пансионат для престарелых», «Troyan horse» - «компьюторная программа, преднамеренно составленная для повреждения компьютера»;

c) phraseological units can be formed by means of alliteration, e.g. «a sad sack» - «несчастный случай», «culture vulture» - «человек, интересующийся искусством», «fudge and nudge» - «уклончивость».

d) they can be formed by means of expressiveness, especially it is characteristic for forming interjections, e.g. «My aunt!», «Hear, hear!» etc

e) they can be formed by means of distorting a word group, e.g. «odds and ends» was formed from «odd ends»,

f) they can be formed by using archaisms, e.g. «in brown study» means «in gloomy meditation» where both components preserve their archaic meanings,

g) they can be formed by using a sentence in a different sphere of life, e.g. «that cock won’t fight» can be used as a free word-group when it is used in sports (cock fighting), it becomes a phraseological unit when it is used in everyday life, because it is used metaphorically,

h) they can be formed when we use some unreal image, e.g. «to have butterflies in the stomach» - «испытывать волнение», «to have green fingers» -»преуспевать как садовод-любитель» etc.

i) they can be formed by using expressions of writers or polititions in everyday life, e.g. «corridors of power» (Snow), «American dream» (Alby) «locust years» (Churchil), «the winds of change» (Mc Millan).

Secondary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a phraseological unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit; they are:

a) conversion, e.g. «to vote with one’s feet» was converted into «vote with one’s f eet»;

b) changing the grammar form, e.g. «Make hay while the sun shines» is transferred into a verbal phrase - «to make hay while the sun shines»;

c) analogy, e.g. «Curiosity killed the cat» was transferred into «Care killed the cat»;

d) contrast, e.g. «cold surgery» - «a planned before operation» was formed by contrasting it with «acute surgery», «thin cat» - «a poor person» was formed by contrasting it with «fat cat»;

e) shortening of proverbs or sayings e.g. from the proverb «You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear» by means of clipping the middle of it the phraseological unit «to make a sow’s ear» was formed with the meaning «ошибаться».

f) borrowing phraseological units from other languages, either as translation loans, e.g. «living space» (German), «to take the bull by the horns» (Latin) or by means of phonetic borrowings «meche blanche» (French), «corpse d’elite» (French), «sotto voce» (Italian) etc.

Phonetic borrowings among phraseological units refer to the bookish style and are not used very often.

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He points out two-top units which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.

Among one-top units he points out three structural types;

a) units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to sandwich in etc.;

b) units of the type «to be tired». Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositons with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions «by» or «with», e.g. to be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at etc. There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of the type «to be young», e.g. to be akin to, to be aware of etc. The difference between them is that the adjective «young» can be used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative. In these units the verb is the grammar centre and the second component is the semantic centre;

c) prepositional- nominal phraseological units. These units are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic centre is the nominal part, e.g. on the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course of, on the stroke of, in time, on the point of etc. In the course of time such units can become words, e.g. tomorrow, instead etc.

Among two-top units A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:

a) attributive-nominal such as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round one’s neck and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms) sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other cases the second component is idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind alley, bed of nail, shot in the arm and many others.

b) verb-nominal phraseological units, e.g. to read between the lines, to speak BBC, to sweep under the carpet etc. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.g. to fall in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic centre, e.g. not to know the ropes. These units can be perfectly idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one’s boats,to vote with one’s feet, to take to the cleaners’ etc.

Very close to such units are word-groups of the type to have a glance, to have a smoke. These units are not idiomatic and are treated in grammar as a special syntactical combination, a kind of aspect.

c) phraseological repetitions, such as: now or never, part and parcel, country and western etc. Such units can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs, back and forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.g cakes and ale, as busy as a bee. Components in repetitions are joined by means of conjunctions. These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives and have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly idiomatic, e.g. cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter (perfectly).

Phraseological units the same as compound words can have more than two tops (stems in compound words), e.g. to take a back seat, a peg to hang a thing on, lock, stock and barrel, to be a shaddow of one’s own self, at one’s own sweet will.

SYNTACTICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS

Phraseological units can be clasified as parts of speech. This classification was suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:

a) noun phraseologisms denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g. bullet train, latchkey child, redbrick university, Green Berets,

b) verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the log-jam, to get on somebody’s coattails, to be on the beam, to nose out, to make headlines,

c) adjective phraseologisms denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, dull as lead,

d) adverb phraseological units, such as: with a bump, in the soup, like a dream, like a dog with two tails,

e) preposition phraseological units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of,

f) interjection phraseological units, e.g. «Catch me!», «Well, I never!» etc.

In I.V.Arnold’s classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings and quatations, e.g. «The sky is the limit», «What makes him tick»,» I am easy». Proverbs are usually metaphorical, e.g. «Too many cooks spoil the broth», while sayings are as a rule non-metaphorical, e.g. «Where there is a will there is a way».

Stylistics

Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary.

Vocabulary word-stock

three layers:

1) literary,

2) neutral,

3) colloquial.

Neutral words make the major bulk of any type of text (either oral or written). They possess no stylistic connotation and can be used in any communicative situation. (table, man, day)

Terms are used in the scientific functional style. The denotative meanings of terms are clearly defined. (approbation, triangle, vector)

Professionalisms are term-like words they are used and understoodby members of a certain trade or profession (scalpel, round pliers);

Literary vocabulary:

- Poetic words create poetic image and make speech elevated. Their nature is archaic. (Albion, quoth, steed, courser, sylvan, maiden, foe).

- Archaic words belong to Old English and are not recognized nowadays. The function is to create realistic background to historical works of literature (methinks = it seems to me, nay = no).

- Bookish words are mainly used in oral speech, diplomacy and business. Main function is to create the tone of solemnity, sophistication, seriousness, learnedness (communications=negotiations, commence=begin, respond=answer, hibernate=wintry).

- Neologisms:

Internet terms: network, server, e-mail, provider, site, Internet, Message, Microsoft;

Stylistic neologisms are new words denoting existing object or concepts: seesaw, hush-hash work;

Lexical neologisms are new words denoting new objects and concepts: push-button war, rockumentary, fruitologist, death-star.

Nonce words are created by speakers to meet the need of the actual communication situation. They achieve one-time purpose and disappear: womanity, balconyful of gentlemen.

Barbarisms are non-assimilated borrowing from French and Latin (alter ago - другой я, protégé-протеже). Function: show foreign origin of the character.

- Colloquial vocabulary is a part of standard English word-stock.

- Colloquialisms – functional colloquial elements (social phrases, greetings, form of address. Functions: emotive, phatic, conative (oops, oh, wow, ala);

- Dialectisms are words used by people of a certain community living in a certain territory. (Sir, you speak English well = Cousin, y’all talk mighty fine; Paisano, you speak good the English; Landsman, you English is planty all right already).

- Slang is a language that takes off its coat, spits on its hands and goes to work. It is non-standard vocabulary understood and used by the whole nation (Sir, I spit on you and your bloody opinion.) Types of slang:

- Cant is a conversional, familiar idiom used only by member of specific occupation, trade, profession, class, age group, interest group.

- Jargon – non-standard words used by people of a certain asocial group to keep their intercourse secret (white stuff=cocaine or morphine, candy=cocaine;

- Argot is both the cant and jargon of any criminal group (snifter=cocaine addict, candy man=drug seller, cap=capsule with narcotic;

- Vulgarisms are expletives or swear words as well as obscene words end expressions.

The notion of style in the language. Notion of language expressive means and

Stylistic devices. Convergence of stylistic devices.

Stylistics is the branch of linguistics, which studies the principles, and effect of choice and combination of different language elements in rendering thought and emotion under different conditions of communication.

• Style is proper words in proper places (J. Swift)

• Style is the art of speaking and writing clearly, correctly and with ease and grace (Chesterfield)

• Style is the choice and disposition of words (Young)

• Style is a contextually restricted linguistic variation (Enkvist)

• Style is an emphasis (expressive, affective or aesthetic) added to the information conveyed by the linguistic structure (Riffaterre)

Expressive means

• Phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactical forms which exist in the language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical, expressive, emotional intensification of the utterance are called EM

Child, kid, youngster, tot;

• In a paradigm, we are confronted with the language expressive potential called "expressive means” which are marked members of stylistic oppositions, having their invariant meaning in language. They are "those phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms which exist in language-as-system for the purpose of logical and/or emotional intensification of the utterance" (Galperin)

Stylistic devices

Lexical stylistic device is such type of denoting phenomena that serves to create additional expressive, evaluative, subjective connotations. In fact we deal with the intended substitution of the existing names approved by long usage and fixed in dictionaries, prompted by the speaker’s subjective original view and evaluation of things. Each type of intended substitution results in a stylistic device called also a trope.

Convergence as the term implies denotes a combination or accumulation of stylistic devices promoting the same idea, emotion or motive. Stylistic function is not the property and purpose of expressive means of the language as such. Any type of expressive means will make sense stylistically when treated as a part of a bigger unit, the context, or the whole text. It means that there is no immediate dependence between a certain stylistic device and a definite stylistic function.

A stylistic device is not attached to this or that stylistic effect. Therefore a hyperbole, for instance, may provide any number of effects: tragic, comical, pathetic or grotesque. Inversion may give the narration a highly elevated tone or an ironic ring of parody.

This "chameleon" quality of a stylistic device enables the author to apply different devices for the same purpose. The use of more than one type of expressive means in close succession is a powerful technique to support the idea that carries paramount importance in the author's view. Such redundancy ensures the delivery of the message to the reader.

An extract from E. Waugh's novel "Decline and Fall" demonstrates convergence of expressive means used to create an effect of the glamorous appearance of a very colorful lady character who symbolizes the high style of living, beauty and grandeur.

The door opened and from the cushions within emerged a tall young man in a clinging dove-gray coat. After him, like the first breath of spring in the Champs-Elysee came Mrs. Beste-Chetwynde - two lizard-skin feet, silk legs, chinchilla body, a tight little black hat, pinned with platinum

and diamonds, and the high invariable voice that may be heard in any Ritz Hotel from New York to Budapest.

Inversion used in both sentences (...from the cushion within emerged a tall man;...like the first breath of spring came Mrs. Beste-Chetwynde) at once sets an elevated tone of the passage.

The simile that brings about a sensory image of awakening nature together with the allusion to Paris - the symbol of the world's capita! of pleasures - sustains this impression: like the first breath of spring in the Champs-Ely see. A few other allusions to the world capitals and their best hotels - New York, Budapest, any Ritz Hotel all symbolize the wealthy way of life of the lady who belongs to the international jet-set distinguished from the rest of the world by her money, beauty and aristocratic descent.

The use of metonymy creates the cinematographic effect of shots and fragments of the picture as perceived by the gazing crowd and suggests the details usually blown up in fashionable newspaper columns on high society life: two lizard-skin feet, silk legs, chichilla body, a tight little black hat... the invariable voice.

The choice of words associated with high-quality life style: exotic materials, expensive clothes and jewelry creates a semantic field that enhances the impression still further (lizard, silk, chinchilla, platinum and diamonds). A special contribution to the high-flown style of description is made by the careful choice of words that belong to the literary bookish stratum: emerge, cushions, dove, invariable.

Even the name of the character - Mrs. Beste-Chetwynde - is a device in itself, it's the so-called speaking name, a variety of antonomasia. Not only its implication (best) but also the structure symbolizes the

lady's high social standing because hyphenated names in Britain testify to the noble ancestry. So the total effect of extravagant and glamour is achieved by the concentrated use of at least eight types of expressive means within one paragraph.

Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices.

Major patterns of sound arrangement

• Versification

rhyme

rhythm

• Sound-instrumentation

alliteration

assonance

onomatopoeia

• Rhyme denotes a complete (or almost complete) coincidence of acoustic impressions produced by stressed syllables (often together with surrounding unstressed ones).

As a rule, such syllables do not immediately follow each other: they mostly recur at the very end of verse lines

Types of rhyme

According to the variants of stress:

• male (the last syllables of the rhymed words are stressed) DREAMS-STREAMS

• female (the next syllables to the last are stressed) DUTY-BEAUTY

• dactylic (the third syllables from the end are stressed) BATTERY — FLATTERY

According to the position of the lines:

• adjacent rhymes aabb

• crossing rhymes abab

• ring rhymes abba

• inner rhyme (I am the daughter of earth and water. ( Shelley))

According to the quality of sounds:

• complete WEEK-WEAK

• Broken FEET-FEEL

• Eye-rhyme WOOD-FLOOD

• Rhythm is a recurring stress pattern in poetry. It is an even alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables

• A foot is a combination of one stressed and some unstressed syllables

• Types of foot:

• Trochee (-.), iambus (.-),

• Dactyl (-..), amphibrach (.-.)

• Anapest (..-)

Sound instrumentation

• Alliteration is a stylistically motivated repetition of consonants

Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club

(Ch. Dickens)

• Assonance is the repetition of similar vowel sounds

Tell this soul with sorrow laden,

if within the distant Aiden,

I shall clasp a sainted maiden,

whom the angels name Lenore

(E.A. Poe)

Onomatopoeia

formation of a name or word by an imitation of the sound associated with the thing or action

• Direct onomatopoeia

buzz, beep, quack-quack

• Indirect onomatopoeia

hiss, rustle, whistle, whisper

• Lexical onomatopoeia

thud, crack, slurp, buzz

• Nonlexical onomatopoeia

brrrrm, vroom-vroom

Syntactical stylistic devices; their structural, semantic and functional characteristics

STYLISTIC SYNTAX

• syntax, as contrasted to lexis, is incapable of conveying emotions as such, but it immediately reacts to their presence or absence (K.Dolinin)

• expressiveness in syntax is the structural reaction of syntax to the presence or absence of emotions as well as to the varying degrees of their presence (E.Trofimova).

Expressive means in syntax based on

• the reduction of the basic model (ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative sentences, asyndeton)

• the extension of the sentence model (repetition, enumeration, syntactical tautology, polysyndeton, emphatic constructions, parenthetic sentences);

• change of the word order (detachment, inversion, separation / syntactical split)

Ellipsis - a syntactic structure in which there is no subject, or predicate, or both

Where did you go? – To the disco.

Asyndeton - a deliberate avoidance of conjunctions used to connect sentences, clauses, phrases or words

Bicket did not answer; his throat felt too dry.

Aposiopesis (or break-in-the-narrative) is realized through incompleteness of sentence structure. (If you go on like this...)

Repetition

ordinary:

Please, get well — fast - fast - fast. (J.Webster)

framing or ring:

We are going to be lucky, we are. (J. Priestley)

catch repetition (anadiplosis)

It was a nice face, a face you get to like. (R.Chandler)

chain repetition

The originals were returned to the envelopes, and the envelopes to the box, and the box to the vault. (R.Stout)

root-repetition

"Schemmer, Karl Schemmer, was a brute, a brutish brute." (London)

Enumeration - the repetition of the homogeneous words or word combinations in the same syntactical position

There were cows, goats, peacocks and sheep in the village.

Syntactical tautology - the repetition of semantically identical elements of the sentence (usually the subject expressed by a noun and a pronoun)

I ain’t got no news from nobody.

Parenthetic sentences - sentences and phrases inserted into a syntactical structure of another sentence

It was only when he had been decisively turned down by everyone approached – banks, trusts, insurance companies, and private lenders – that his original confidence waned. (A.Haily)

Emphatic constructions - intensification of any part of the utterance

• It was to the small house that he came at the end.

Polysyndeton - the repetition of the same conjunction before the enumerated components of the sentence

And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew and beat upon the house; and it fell; and great was the fall of it. (Matthew 7)

Stylistic devices in syntax based on

- interconnection of several syntactical constructions in a certain context (parallelism, chiasmus, anaphora, epiphora)

- the transposition of the meaning of the syntactical construction or the model of the sentence (rhetoric questions)

- the transposition of the meaning of the means of connection between the components of the sentence or sentences (parcellation, subordination instead of coordination)

Metaphorical group of stylistic devices. Mechanism of metaphoric transfer of

Name. Types of metaphor.

Metaphor – transposition of a name based on similarity/ likeness of two objects;

Types of metaphor

Semantic types:

Genuine or original (created by speakers): The wind was a torrent of darkness among the trees.

Trite or dead (are fixed in the dictionary): To burn with desire, floods of tears;

Structural types:

Simple (elementary) consist of single words, or compound words, or phrases

The good book is the best of friends.

Sustained/extended metaphors appear in cases when a word which has been used metaphorically makes other words of the sentence also realize their metaphoric meanings.

Blondes, wars, famines - they all arrived on the same train. They unpacked together. They stayed at the same hotel...

Functional types:

nominative is technical device of nomination, when a new notion is named by means of the old vocabulary.

A leg of the table, an arm of the clock

cognitive – when an object obtains a quality which is typical of another object

One more day has died.

figurative / imaginative:

Patricia’s eyes were pools of still water.

Antonomasia and Allegory

Antonomasia (Allegory) - identification of human beings with things which surround them (throughout the whole text);

The use of a proper name for a common noun.

He is the Napoleon of crime. (C.Doyle)

2.the use of common nouns as proper names - speaking / token / talking names: Mr. Murdstone; Mrs. Snake; Miss Toady

Allegory = antonomasia within the whole text.

1. proverbs/sayings:

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